Christian Iconography, Or, The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages (2024)

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

Iconographie chrétienne (1844) is a work by Adolphe Napoléon Didron.

Volume 2

CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.THE TRINITY,THE three Divine Persons are merged in one single God,just as the three images representing them combine to form one single group. The doctrines of our holy faith, and theworks of art Theology and Iconography-walk hand inhand, the one in describing, the other in pourtraying theTrinity. The three Persons have hitherto been each considered separately. It now remains only to exhibit themgroupedtogether, united between themselves, and represented as Trinities.HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY.The doctrine of the Trinity, which had been almostentirely unknown to the Pagans, and but imperfectly revealedto the Jewish race, was made clearly and completely manifestfrom the very earliest origin of Christianity. It unfoldeditself in all its extent, and with all the various and important results connected with it, during the successive centuriesof the Christian era, and conformably with them. Considerable research and enquiry has been made as to the ideasentertained by Pagans on the subject of the Trinity, and theamount of knowledge possessed by them of the unity ofthe divine essence, and the triplicity of persons, or hypo- stases. Plato appears to have foreseen the Christian doctrine, but only as objects perceived at a distance, which theeye can scarcely reach, or seizes but imperfectly. The doctrineattributed to that Greek philosopher, and which seemsrather to be deducible from his general theory, than openly VOL. II. B2 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.avowed by himself, is that the divine triplicity ought to becalled Goodness, Intelligence, and the Soul or cause ofall things. *The Platonists, and the philosophers of the school ofAlexandria in particular, delighted in scrutinising, elucidating, filling up, and amplifying beyond measure, the ideaof the master. Plotinus and Longinus, who are followed byJamblichus and Porphyry, admit one single God in threepersons; but Numerius insists upon three Gods. Numeriusacknowledges the Father, the Creator, and the World. Heseems to make of each of these three Gods a trinity ofIdealism, Intelligence, and Power. Amelius and Theodorealso discover three Trinities in that of Plato, and pretendthat there are three Goodnesses, three Intelligences, threeSouls. Seneca seems to approximate to the doctrine ofChristianity in a curious passage of his writings, in which henames, as primal cause of every event, first-God, who cando all things; next-incorporeal Reason, by which the greatestworks are performed; lastly-the Divine Spirit circulatingthroughout everything. To these three moving causes headds Fatality or Destiny, that is to say, the reciprocal unionof these causes and their mutual combination.§Comparing this text with what Greek mythology teachesin reference to the three great divinities, who, the offspringofone common Father, are the supreme heads of the world

• “ Τὸ εὖ, ὁ νοῦς, οι, ὁδ λόγος, ἡ ψυχὴ.” See the Etudes sur la Théodicée de

Platon et d'Aristote, par M. Jules Simon, pp. 148, 151 , 175. In the Greek paintings of Mount Athos, the philosopher Plato is constantly represented amongst the number of those Pagans who had a knowledge, although imperfect,of the truth. He is an old man, with a long beard, and appears to be uttering the following words, which are painted on a rouleau that he holds in his left hand: " The old is new and the new old, the Father is in the Son, and the Son is in the Father. The Unity is divided into three, and the Trinityre-united in one." The language is not literally that of the Greek philosopher,but it is attributed to him by Byzantine artists as presenting the result of his doctrine.

• “ Πατὴρ, ποιητὴς, ποίημα.”

See a thesis in M. Jules Simon, entitled Commentaire du Timée de Platon, par Proclus, p. 105.§ " Id actum est, mihi crede, ab illo, quisquis formator universi fuit, siveille DEUS est, potens omnium; sive incorporalis RATIO, ingentium operumartifex; sive divinus SPIRITUS, per omnia maxima, minima et æquali inten- tione diffusus; sive FATUM et immutabilis causarum inter se cohærentiumseries."-Ap. Senecam, De Consolatione ad Helviam, cap. viii,HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY. 3which they share between them, it must be confessed thatthe doctrine of the Trinity was at least vaguely known tothe Pagans. In fact, amongst the Hindoos, a divine " Trimourti " directs all the phenomena of the Universe. *Amongst the Greeks, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto reignupon the three different stages composing the edifice of theworld.At the summit, in the highest region of the air, hoversJupiter, the king of heaven; in the centre Neptune, commanding the sea; at the foot, Pluto governs earth and hell,which form his covering. They are all three sons of one single parent, of the old Saturn, himself the son of Colusand Terra. When any Greek deity associates in himselfuniversal functions, he generally has three different names.Thus the feminine power, corresponding with the three maledivinities who have just been named, is called in heavenLuna, Diana on the earth, Hecate or Proserpine in hell.The ancients, those more especially who were scholars ofPythagoras, and scrutators of celestial arithmetic, delightedto repeat that God regarded with favour an uneven number,and more particularly the number three. The number three,which can be divided only by itself, or by the unit, was theimage of God, who can be compared only with himself, thatis to say with the absolute Unity. The Pagans seem tohave imagined that nothing could be complete unless it werecapable of being divided by three, and thus presentingitself to the mind under a threefold aspect; beauty wassymbolised by the three Graces; life, by the three Fates;justice by the three Judges; and vengeance by the threeEumenides. Any combination whatever, in use among theGreeks, will be found to be divisible into three members;thus every column has a basem*nt on which the shaft isfixed, and the shaft again is surmounted by a capital .The above ideas concerning numbers, and the mysteriousproperties of the number three, prevailed during the entire

• The Hindoo " Trimourti " is composed of Brâhma, Siva, and Vishnoo.

Brahma presides over the earth, and is the creative god; Siva is the destructivegod, and reigns over fire; to Vishnoo , the conservative god, belongs the empire of the water, upon which he moves.-M. Guignaut, Religions de l'Antiquité,vol. i., c. 2 and 3.B 24 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.course of the middle ages, and even in the present day they still engage our attention. Geometricians have observedthat no material object can exist, without possessing thethree dimensions, length, breadth, and height. Physiologistsassert life itself to be composed of three particular lives;intellectual life, the seat of which is in the brain; digestivelife, of which the centre is the stomach; and locomotive life,which resides in the muscular power. Certain psychologists,taking possession of the intellectual and cerebral life, whichis the most elevated of the three material existences, divideit into intelligence properly so called, love, and volition,whence severally flow, faculties, feelings, and actions. Manymodern philosophers, admitting that division and terminology, declare man to be in himself a little world; a sort offinite deity, and that the chief attributes of divinity arewisdom, goodness, and power. * Christianity is the mostcomplete development, the highest, and at the same time themost universal of all truths; by it past truths are revealed,purified, and filtered, if the expression may be allowed; byit truths that are yet future are prepared. It was fitting,therefore, that Christianity should proclaim God to be aDivine Unity in three persons. "Fides Catholica hæc est;ut unum Deum in Trinitate, et Trinitatem in unitate vene- remur." "And the Catholic faith is this, that we worship

• To live, to think, to act, are, according to Hindoo metaphysics, the three modes of the Divine existence. Cambry (Monuments Celtiques, in 8vo. p. 157, )

considers they should be rather to be, to think, and to speak. "Man," saysM. P. Leroux, in his works, " is in his nature and by essence, sensation,feeling, and intelligence, indivisibly united." This psychological definition of man reminds us of the Trinity of the St. Simonians, Industry, Science, and Religion, which have for their aim or object, the union of the useful, the true,and the good or beautiful. According to M. de la Mennais (Esquisse d'une phi- losophie), " Man, regarded in an elevated point of view, exhibits the laws of intelligence, volition and love, closely connected in his being, with the laws of organism. Man exerts himself in three spheres of activity, united, because man is one single being; but distinct, because referring to different aims or objects: Industry, ofwhich the object is theuseful; Art, whose aim is beauty;and Science, which has for its object truth. French eclecticism and thewhole range of German philosophy, that of Hegel in particular, hold nearly the same language. It would be out of place here to pursue further this inventory of modern philosophy; what has been already said will suffice to prove the high estimation in which the number three is held even in our own day. Welean, far more than we are willing to allow, to the doctrines of Pythagoras and the learned schoolmen of the middle ages.HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY. 5one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity. * These words Dante translates as follows:66" Quell' uno e due e tre che sempre vive,E regna sempre in tre e due ed uno,Non circonscritto e tuto circonscrive,Tre volte era cantato da ciascunoDi quelli spirti. *

• *

Divina Commedia, Paradiso, c. xiv. 1. 28.†In Jacobus de Voragine, in the legend of the ApostleSt. Thomas, we find a psychological and material justificationof the triplicity resolving itself into unity. This passage,dating from the earliest period of Christianity, leads fromthe exposition of the dogma of the Trinity to the definitionof the Divine persons, and is therefore here given.St. Thomas, on his arrival in India, began to heal thesick, and to preach the truths of Christianity. " TheApostle began by instructing them in the twelve degrees ofthevirtues; the first of these degrees was the belief in one God,single in essence, and triple in person. He gave them threeself- evident or palpable examples of the Trinity of personsin one single substance. The first, that there is in man onesingle wisdom, and that from that unity proceed intelligence,memory, and genius. For genius, " says he, " is the power ofdiscovering what it has never been taught (the creativefaculty); memory, that of not forgetting what has beenlearnt; intelligence, that of understanding what may beshown or taught. The second example is drawn from thethree parts in the vine: the wood, the leaves, and the fruit;yet all three make but one and the same vine. His third

• See the Creed of St. Athanasius. Lactantius, as has been said, compresses this dogma into the following laconic words, " Deus trinus unus." The word

" Trinity," which is even more compact, virtually comprehends the entire creed of St. Athanasius.Literally rendered by Chaucer-Troilus and Creseide-fifth book last stanza."Thou one, two, and three, eterne on live ,That raignest aie in three, two, and one,

Uncirc*mscript and all maist circ*mscrive."

Thrice sang each spirit."This is to be found in the Apocryphal Book, entitled Historia Cer- taminis Apostolorum; it is attributed to the first Bishop of Babylon, Abdias,who was contemporary with the Apostles.6 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.example is, that the head is the seat of four senses; sight,taste, hearing and smelling; all these things are more thanone, and yet form one single head * only.”DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS.It will be necessary here to complete what was said in thechapter on the Holy Ghost, relating to the propertiespeculiar to each of the three persons of the Divine Trinity.It was there observed, that this question had beenpending throughout the entire course of the middle ages.Confounding the relations of the Divine persons betweenthemselves, and with their relations towards men, the qualitiesof the Holy Ghost were attributed to the Son, those oftheFather, but more particularly those of the Son, to the Spirit.With regard to ourselves, heaven has been distinguishedfrom earth; things existent from all eternity have to usappeared different, in some respects, from those which havetheir origin in time. Theology, as may easily be supposed,is not always commensurate with history. It has consequently been stated, speaking of the Divine persons in theirrelation towards men, that the Father has manifested himselfas the source of omnipotence; the Son, as the God of love;the Spirit, as the fountain of intelligence. Engravings havebeen given, in which each of the Divine persons is thus characterised . But it should be remembered that theseengravings are exceptions; two examples only, out of severalhundred subjects, have as yet come to our knowledge. LoveThis third example refers to plurality in general, not to triplicity. The following quotation is from the Legenda Aurea ( De Sancto Thoma, Apos- tolo:) " Tunc Apostolus cœpit eos docere et duodecim gradus virtutum assignare. Primus est ut in Deum crederent, qui est unus in essentia et trinus in personis. Deditque eis triplex exemplum sensibile, quomodo sint in una essentia tres personæ. Primum est quia una est in homine sapientia, etde illa una procedit intellectus, memoria et ingenium. Nam ingenium est,inquit, ut quod non didicisti invenias; memoria, ut non obliviscaris quod didiceris; intellectus, ut intelligas quæ ostendi possunt vel doceri . Secundum est quia in una vinea tria sunt, scilicet; lignum, folia, et fructus; et omnia tria unum sunt et una vinea sunt; Tertium est quia caput unum quatuor sensibus constat. In uno enim capite sunt visus, gustus, auditus, et odoratus,et hæe plura sunt et unum caput sunt."DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS.is habitually ascribed to the Holy Ghost, and intelligence toJesus Christ, who is the " Word " made flesh; the Word ofGod incarnate, the Xoyos of the Greek Church.66 66Saint Augustine adopts two opinions concerning thespecial definition appropriate to each of the three persons.Man," says he, was made in the image of God; theremust therefore, be a Trinity in man, as there is in God.Thus in man we find the soul, its consciousness, and self- love. * Those three faculties reside also in God, but ininfinite proportion. " In the above theory, to whichSt. Augustine gives the preference, and which, probably,originated with him, the spiritual substance in man, his soul,is the image of the Father; intelligence, or the " Word,"that of the Son; love, that of the Holy Ghost. "In thesame manner,' continues St. Augustine, " in which themind and its love for itself, are two different things, so themind, and its self-knowledge or consciousness, are also twodistinct things. Therefore, the mind, its love, and its consciousness, form a triad; and that triad is, at the sametime, an unity. When the three are perfect, they areequal. " According to a second opinion of St. Augustine,memory is the image of the Father; intelligence, of the Son;volition, of the Holy Ghost. In both theories, the HolyGhost is love; and the Son, intelligence. In the first, the Father is substance; in the second, memory."2The doctrine taught by St. Ambrose is different. Thesoul of man (says the Archbishop of Milan) was made inthe image of God; and the entire man is contained in thesoul. Precisely as the Son is begotten by the Father, andas the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son,so from the intelligence volition is engendered, and fromthose two powers proceeds memory. The soul, withoutthat triad, is incomplete; one quality cannot be deficient,without rendering the others imperfect; and in the samemanner, God the Father, God the Son, and God the HolyGhost, are not three Gods, but one single God in threepersons. Thus, too, the intelligence of the soul, its volition,"Mentem, notitiam qua se novit et dilectionem qua se diligit.”St. August. De Trinitate, lib. ix. , cap. vi.+ De Trinitate, lib. ix. , cap. iv.8 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.and its memory, are not three souls in one body, but onesingle soul possessed of three faculties. *Thus, then, according to the theory of St. Ambrose, theFather is intelligence; the Son, love or volition; the HolyGhost, memory. Love is here transferred from the HolyGhost to the Son, and intelligence from the Son to theFather. The Holy Ghost becomes memory; and no allusionis made to that spiritual substance of the Divine soul spokenof by St. Augustine.This formula, according to M. Buchez,† from whom theabove series of facts is borrowed, is very far superior to thatof St. Augustine. In the formula of this great Doctor, itis shown that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father;but not that he proceeds also from the Son. Besides, it iserroneous to confound volition with love; to will is to act,to choose, but in neither case is it to desire.Of these three opinions, St. Bernard adopts the second.§St. Thomas Aquinas does not appear to adopt either,although, in admitting two-thirds of the first, he acknowledges the Son to be intelligence, and the Holy Ghost love.Bossuet takes the two first at the same time. They areblended in one by M. L'Abbé Frère, and Bossuet and St.Augustine hesitate between the two. ** M. Buchez adheresto the third opinion, which is the same as that held by St. Ambrose.ttThe Abbess Herrade adopts the second opinion held bySt. Augustine. She declares that memory belongs specially

• St. Ambrosü Hexameron, lib. vi. , cap. vii., s. 43; ap. Opera. tom ii.

Append. p. 612.Traité Complet de Philosophie, vol. iii . , Ontologie, Chap. de la Trinité Humaine, pp. 374–377.We cannot acquiesce in this opinion, for memory being the offspring of intelligence and an immediate result of that faculty, it may be objected to the formula of St. Ambrose, that it attributes intelligence to two of the Divine persons; and besides, what, according to that theory, becomes of strength or power, which is, notwithstanding, a principal and important faculty?§ St. Bernard, Meditat. de Cognit. human, cond. cap. i.St. Thomæ , Summa, pars. i. , quest. 93, art. 8.¶ Bossuet. Élévations sur les Mystères, 2º semaine, 6º élévat. , édit. in 4º,tom. x. , p. 33; 4e semaine, 7º élévat. , tom. x., p. 71. Exorde du Sermon sur le Mystère de la Sainte Trinité.

• • L'homme connu par la Révélation, tom. i.

++ Buchez, Traité Complet de Philos., vol. iii . , pp. 397–408.DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS. 9to the Father; intelligence, to the Son; volition or love, tothe Holy Ghost. *Richard de St. Victor, observing that, in all the aboveformularies, omnipotence, (which is, notwithstanding, theprimordial and generative faculty,) had been forgotten, attributed to the Father power, but preserved to the Holy Ghostlove, and to the Son intelligence. In this arrangement,Richard conformed to the spirit of the times-it may indeedbe said, to the spirit of the middle ages generally-and tothe definition then prevailing, ‡ which is almost universallyinterpreted by monumental images. In fact, the formulariessuggested by St. Augustine and St. Ambrose, owe theirorigin rather to philosophy than to theology; naturally,therefore, they failed to make any great progress during the

• Hortus Deliciarum . "Divinitas consistit in Trinitate. Hujus imaginem tenet anima, quæ habet memoriam, per quam præterita et futura recolit;

habet intellectum, quo presentia et invisibilia intelligit; habet voluntatem, qua malum respicit et bonum eligit. "Not to dwell longer on these points, the discussion of which is of far more importance to the future course of Christian Iconography, than to the Iconography of the middle ages, we shall content ourselves with quoting the Latin text of Richard. That profound theologian, in the Tractatus Exceptionum, lib. ii. , cap. ii. ( Opp. Richardi S. Vict. , in fo. , Rouen, 1650) , writes as follows:-" Invisibilia Dei a creatura mundi per ea quæ facta sunt intellecta conspiciuntur. Tria sunt invisibilia Dei: potentia, sapientia, benignitas. Ab his tribus procedunt omnia, in his tribus consistunt omnia, per hæc tria reguntur omnia. Potentia creat, sapientia gubernat, benignitas conservat. Quæ tamentria sicut in Deo ineffabiliter unum sunt, ita in operatione separari nonpossunt. Potentia per benignitatem sapienter creat, sapientia per potentiam benigne gubernat, benignitas per sapientiam potenter conservat. Potentiammanifestat creaturarum immensitas, sapientiam decor, bonitatem utilitas."Afterwards, in a treatise addressed to S. Bernard, and entitled De Tribus appropriatis personis in Trinitate, lib . vi . , p. 270, he considers Curattribuatur potentia Patri, sapientia Filio, bonitas Spiritui Sancto. " Lastly,in his treatise De Trinitate, lib. vi. , p. 264, he inquires, “ Quare speciali ,quodam decendi modo potentia attribuitur ingenito, sapientia genito, bonitasSpiritui Sancto." He concludes thus-" Quoniam ergo in potentia exprimitur proprietas ingeniti, speciali quodam considerationis modo merito adscribitur illi.Sed quoniam in sapientia exprimitur proprietas geniti, merito et illa juxta eundem modum adscribitur ipsi . Item quia in bonitate proprietas SpiritusSancti invenitur, merito et ei bonitas specialiter assignatur."66Dante, in the Divina Commedia, Paradiso, canto x. , writes thus of the Trinity:-"Guardando nel suo Figlio con l' Amore Che l' uno e l'altro eternalmente spira,Lo primo ed ineffabile Valore,10 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.medieval epoch; and men at that period, generally agreed in recognising omnipotence, as the characteristic of theFather; supreme wisdom, as that of the Son; and infinitelove in the Holy Ghost. Abelard himself attributed omnipotence to the Father; to the Son, wisdom; and to theHoly Ghost, goodness; he merely repeated what nearly everyone said. Abelard erred only in assigning to each Divineperson one single quality, and refusing to acknowledgetheir possession of the other two. His doctrines were condemned from his having asserted that the Father possessedomnipotence, but without either wisdom or goodness; andthat the Holy Ghost had wisdom, but not power. * Thethree persons were, by his theory, completely isolated inrespect of their special attributes; and, with a singularinconsistency, he afterwards confounded them in a divineunity, so intimate and compact, that it was impossible totrace in it the three hypostases. This idea of the independence of the three persons on the one hand, combinedon the other with a fusion so complete, led Abelard into atwofold error; still that celebrated representative ofscholasticphilosophy, admitted the speciality of the attributes, qualifying and applying them to the Divine persons, as had beenQuanto per mente, o per occhio si gira,Con tanto ordine fe' ch' esser non puoteSenza gustar di lui, chi ciò rimira."Looking into his first-born with the loveWhich breathes from both eternal, the first Might Ineffable, wherever eye or mindCan roam, hath in such order all disposed,As none may see and fail to enjoy. -Cary's Dante. , c. x. 1. 1 .Martenne and Durand, two Benedictine Monks, discovered in the Abbey des Prémontrés de Vigogne (diocese of Arras), a manuscript containing atreatise of St. Bernard against Abelard, which had been sent by the Abbot of Clairvaux to Pope Innocent II. At the conclusion of the manuscript, afterthe words " collegi et aliqua transmisi," the following propositions, extractedby St. Bernard from the writings of Abelard, are inserted: -" Quod Pater sit plena potentia, Filius quædam potentia, Spiritus Sanctus nulla potentia. Quod Spiritus Sanctus non sit de substantia Patris aut Filii . Quod Spiritus Sanctus sit anima mundi. Quod neque Deus est hom*o, neque hæc persona quæChristus est, sit tertia persona in Trinitate. Quod in Christo non fuerit Spiritus timoris Domini. Quod ad Patrem, qui ab alio non est, proprie velspecialiter attineat omnipotentia, non etiam sapientia et benignitas. Quod adventus in fine sæculi possit attribui Patri. " See Le Voyage littéraire de deux Benedictins, 11e partie, p. 213.DEFINITION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS . 11done by Richard de St. Victor, and most of the other theologians.At all events, the reciprocal relation of the Divine personswas well explained by the above formula, but not their relation towards man. We have in consequence, been compelled to makethe distinction alluded to intheprevious chapter treating of the Holy Ghost, and to observe that it becamenecessary, while assigning omnipotence to the Father, to attribute love to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost intelligence.The great Christian geniuses who have been named,St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, andothers, preserved their orthodoxy, even while varying theterms, which to them appeared to designate the three Divinepersons. We also desire to suggest a different arrangementof the Divine attributes, without departing from the creed.Moreover the representations engraved and given in theprevious volume, attribute to the Divine persons precisely thequalities to which attention has been particularly drawn. Inthe present day especially, the formula here adopted is in favour with everyone, andwe may also repeat, that the following explanation of the sign of the cross as performed by theGreeks, was given by Daniel, bishop of Lacedemon, in theyear 1839: " It is made by opening the three first fingersof the right hand, the thumb, the forefinger and the middlefinger. The three fingers are here employed in honour of,and as symbolising, the Trinity. The thumb, being peculiarly active and strong, the only finger capable of offeringresistance to the other four, and the instrument of manualaction; the thumb is the representative of the Father.The middle finger, which has the pre-eminence over theothers, and which is on the right of the thumb when seenfrom the back of the hand, is the Son. The fore-finger,through which the middle finger is connected with thethumb, figures the Holy Ghost. The fore-finger (index)indeed directs the eye and points out the position of objects;it is the organ of intelligence, and the instrument of expres- sion. " The ingenuity and subtlety of this Byzantineinterpretation is extremely striking.-Such was the general opinion in our own country, inthe twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and the Liturgists,Durandus and Beleth amongst others, declared that the12 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.sign of the cross was made with three fingers in honour ofthe blessed Trinity. The fundamental idea is the same,whether it be of Latin or Byzantine origin. Nor is it byany means certain that the development of the idea doesnot belong equally to both churches, or even that it did notoriginate altogether in the West. According to the ritualsof the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, in performing the marriage ceremony, the nuptial ring was placedsuccessively on the first three fingers of the right hand ofthe husband as well as of the wife. When it was placed onthe thumb, the following words were recited,- "In nominePatris;" on the first finger-" et Filii; " and on the middlefinger " et Spiritûs Sancti. " The fore-finger here is attributed to the Son, and not to the Holy Ghost, but thispeculiarity is perhaps of but little consequence. *To conclude, the Father is supreme power, and should becharacterised by the globe, the universe, which was createdby him: the Son is infinite love, and his symbol is the Cross.The Spirit is intelligence, and ought to have the book. Inrepresentations of this subject, the Father is usually drawn.with the globe; the Son with the Cross or book, but morefrequently with the globe, and the Holy Ghost without any attribute whatever. The Son thus absorbs in himself thethree divine faculties, for the medieval artists assigned tohim as personal attributes, the globe, designating power;the book, symbolic of intelligence or wisdom; and love,symbolised by the Cross, while the Holy Ghost appears tobe completely disinherited . In treating so grave a subjectnothing should be left to the arbitrary decision of individual minds. Ideas and terms must be defined, in order thatcontemporary artists may not fall into error, but depict thethree Divine persons, and their attributes, in strict conformity with the creed, and the dogmas of theology.We must request forgiveness for having, in treating ofarchæology, thus invaded the province of theology andphilosophy. Still Christian archæology may yet be calledon to render important services to theology and philosophy.

• See in the " Bulletin Archéologique du comité historique des Arts et

Monuments, vol. ii . , pp. 498, 499," notices by M. l'Abbe Poquet and Lucien de Rosny, correspondants historiques, of two rituals formerly belonging to the Cathedral of Soissons ( Aisne) , and of the Abbey of Barbeau (Seine- et-Marne).THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 13Archæology is not a mere science of names, neither is itsnature purely descriptive; it is more properly " history,"and embraces that part of history which has for its objectthe giving an interpretation of facts. Without venturing togive any positive solution, it must still be acknowledgedthat without some reference to theology, Christian archæology can never be made in any degree useful, nor will it bepossible to comprehend the intention of the various figures,carved upon Christian monuments. It becomes absolutelyindispensable, when viewing certain monuments, to dwellupon the principal questions and essential facts of ecclesiastical history. Theology is in truth a noble science, and hasbeen far less deeply studied than it deserves. Long, andinjuriously abandoned to ecclesiastics, as if the clergyalone were interested in the study, it ought now to berestored to its place of honour. Everything in the presentday is in progress, and all sciences ought to be profoundlyscrutinised, both in their doctrinal and in their historicalbearing. Happy shall we esteem ourselves if the presentwork be in any degree instrumental in reviving a taste forthis noble study, which disturbs, although only in order tosolve them, questions the most difficult and profound.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY.The Holy Trinity, that is to say, the union of the threeDivine persons in one, is not once distinctly affirmed in the Old Testament. Certain texts of Holy Scripture lead us toinfer its existence, but even those texts are in some measureliable to objections. Inthe book of Genesis, God speaks thus,"Let Us make man in our image, after our likeness."(Gen. i. 26.) He says, again, " Behold the man is becomeas one of Us." (Gen. iii . 22.) And a third time he says," Let Us go down, and there confound their language.(Gen. xi. 7. ) * Still these expressions do not necessarilyimply the idea of the Trinity. God may have used theplural in speaking, simply because he was addressing an angel; or like a sovereign issuing a command, or an artistinciting himself to proceed with the work in which he isThese two last texts have been before quoted, vol. i. , page 441 .""14 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.engaged. God may thus have used the plural number,without any reference to the other two Divine persons. Theabove objections have been refuted by theologians, but, nevertheless, seem to be of a certain importance. In one workon theology, * in use in the seminaries of France, it is declaredthat God cannot possibly have been addressing the angels,when he used the words " Let us make man in our image.'But the doubts of modern theology had been anticipated inthe thirteenth century, and an angel was then representedassisting the Creator to mould the clay of which the firstman was fashioned. The following example, amongst others,is completely characteristic .ишшFig. 131.-AN ANGEL ASSISTING THE CREATOR.†Italian Miniature of the XIII cent.God is here assimilated to an eminent artist, himselrgiving the last touch to a work that has been commenced byan inferior artist. The inferior artist, the practitioner, is

• " Theologia Dogmatica et Moralis," by Louis Bailly, tom ii. Tractatus

de S. Trinitate, pp. 1-17.Psalterium cum figuris in fo. , Bibl . Royale.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 15represented by the angel, who fashions the clay, giving it arude outline only, and imparting to the mass the imperfect form and general lineaments of a man. This man is as yetmerely clay; formless, motionless, senseless, and devoid of life.God Almighty is there present, the right hand raised in the attitude of benediction, blessing the statue which is to beAdam, and breathing into him the breath of life. Thusthe angel co-operates with God in the formation of Adam;the angel rudely frames what God completes and perfects.The " Let Us make," of Genesis, although implying that aplurality of beings assisted in the formation of Adam, doesnot intimate the plurality, much less the triplicity of the Divine persons.The manuscript from which the drawing given above isextracted, is not a solitary instance of the language of thebook of Genesis being thus interpreted. In the north porchof the Cathedral of Chartres, the exterior cordon of thevoussoir of the central entrance is occupied by a series offigures representing the Creation. There, also, the Creatoris assisted by an angel, with whom he appears to be in consultation. A manuscript in the Bibliothèque Royaletgoes still further, and represents the angel as closely unitedwith the Deity, and making with him one body only, as hemakes but one mind or idea, while creating the earth,animals, and man. It must, however, be allowed, that thismode of interpreting the plural verb, employed in the bookof Genesis, is an exception to the general practice; for,during the entire duration of the mediaval era, particularlyin the Gothic period, artists depicted the three persons ofthe Trinity, creating and animating Adam: some examplesof this have been already given, and others will presentlyfollow. We merely desire to show that Socinians mighthave discovered in the religious Iconography of the middleages, arguments in defence oftheir heresy, but we readilyadmit that Christian artists in general, and doctors of

• "Et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum vitæ, et factus est hom*o in animam viventem. " " And breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became

a living soul." (Gen. ii . 7.)+ Chronique d'Isidore de Seville, Bibl. Roy. , 7135 , close of the thirteenth century, " On voit dans le frontispiece du fo. 1. Dieu figuré avec deux têtes et des ailes."-Catalogue des MSS. Franç. Par. 1ª, Paris, vol. v. , p. 334.16 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.theology, have agreed in recognising the presence of theTrinity, in the texts quoted above.It has been already mentioned, (Fig. 19) , that Abrahamprostrated himself before one of the three angels, who methim in the valley of Mamre, and whom he invited to reposenear his tent, beneath a tree. Abraham saw three angels,but addressed himself at first to one only amongst them, andspoke afterwards to all the three together. Commentators have thence inferred that the Divine Trinity appeared tothe Father of the Patriarchs. This interpretation of adubious text, is rather ingenious than indisputable. However,the art has constantly ranged itself on the side of thecommentators, and represented the three persons united,while Abraham falls prostrate before one of the three.Below the picture the following legend is sometimes placed,"Tres vidit, unum adoravit. " †In the Psalms of David, the Divine persons are representedas speaking;- "The Lord hath said unto me, -thou art mySon; this day have I begotten thee." (Psalm ii . 7.)"TheLord said unto my Lord, sit thou at my right hand. "

• Genesis xviii. 2-5. In a Latin MS. of Prudentius (Bibl. Roy.

8085) , three angels, symbolic according to Prudentius, of the Trinity, appeared unto Abraham. One only has around his head a circle resembling a nimbus;the other two are without. [ It is worthy of remark, that in most of the striking texts mentioned by Didron, there should be a great discrepancy between the versions. I particularly mention the fact that artists may be on their guard. I will instance that text, in particular, from Isaiah xl. 12, where the Vulgate has it, " Quis mensus est pugillo aquas, et cælos palmo ponderavit.Quis appendit tribus digitis molem terræ, et libravit in pondere moutes, et colles in statere. " And this term tribus digitis was used expressly by theologiansin support of the argument that the Trinity had been foreshadowed in the Old Testament. These texts, where we find translations vary so much, must,therefore, be employed guardedly. Still, the Vulgate version should be always consulted and preferred when reference is made merely to the mode of representing the particular subject by the earlier medieval artists, and as a guide we must constantly employ it in tracing the progress ofmedieval iconology. - ED. ]See in the Church of St. Etienne-du-mont, in the , south aisle, a paintedwindow, belonging to the sixteenth century, on which the fact, and the legend explaining it, are represented. In the Bibl. de l'Arsenal a manuscript(Missale parisienne, Theol. lat. 182, ) contains the three angels exactlyresembling one another, and alike adored by Abraham. In Greece, at the foot of Mount Pentelicus, in a little chapel adjoining the monastery, is a picture representing Abraham entertaining the three angels at his table. Theseangels are completely equal, as in the Hortus deliciarum; all three wear thesame kind of nimbus, marked with the Divine cross , and with ó v in the cross branches.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 17(Psalm cx. 1. ) " I begot thee in my bosom before Lucifer. "(Psalm cx. 3. ) *These expressions have, consequently, been supposed toinfer that allusion is here made to the Trinity; but this wasgoing too far. Two Divine Persons may be there alludedto, but certainly not three. The very small number oftexts relating to the Trinity, to be found in the OldTestament, has induced commentators to torture the senseof the language, and to wrest the meaning of facts. Artists,prompted by commentators, have introduced images of theTrinity into scenes in which they are highly inappropriate;thus in the following drawing they make three angels, figurFig. 132. THE TRINITY, IN COMBAT WITH BEHEMOTH AND LEVIATHAN.From the same source, and bearing the same date, as Fig. 131 .ing the three Divine persons, in combat with Behemoth andLeviathan. One of the angels, that without wings, has acruciform nimbus, which properly belongs only to Deity;

• Psalm cx. 3. The verse in our translation is as follows:-" In the

beauties of holiness from the womb of the morning, thou hast the dew of thy VOL. II.C18 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.the nimbus worn by the two others being plain, there is butlittle doubt that the artist feared, or perhaps forgot to insert the cross.A revelation of the Trinity has in like manner beendiscovered in the three companions of Daniel, Ananias,Misaël, and Azarias, who were thrown by command ofNebuchadnezzar into the fiery furnace. That in them maybe traced an image, referring more or less obscurely to theTrinity, is very possible; but it is impossible to receive thatimage as a symbol of the doctrine. Besides, in a subject ofsuch serious importance, a conjecture, a possibility, will not suffice; realities are needed, texts clear and precise in their nature. *The Old Testament offers very few such texts; in thatpart of the Holy Scriptures, few real and confessedly indisputable manifestations of the Trinity are to be met with.youth;" but in the version of the Prayer Book, the text is, "the dew of thy birth is of the womb of the morning." In the version of Tremellius it is " indecoris locis sanctitatis inde ab utero, ab aurora tibi aderit ros juventæ suæ; "and the Vulgate has " Tecum principium in die virtutis tue [ sic ] in splendoribus sanctorum: ex utero ante luciferum genui te. " —ED.

• It may, however, be observed, that the angel commissioned by God to

extinguish the flames of the furnace into which Nebuchadnezzar had commandedthe three Hebrews to be thrown, appeared to the King of Babylon in form like the Son of God. The three Hebrews did, in a measure, symbolise the threeDivine persons, who were united in one single God in a divine and living unity, in the person of an Angel. The story has been thus understood bynumerous artists and commentators of the middle ages; but it must always beconfessed, that in this biblical history the Trinity is recognised through themedium of interpretation, and not as a necessary deduction. (See the Prophecyof Daniel, iii. 23, 24, 25, 26. ) St. Cyprian recognised the Trinity, not merelyin the three young Hebrews, but figured even in the distribution of the prayerswhich those young men offered up in conjunction with Daniel. (St. Cyprian,De Oratione Dominica, near the end. See the Institutions Liturgiques parDom Gueranger, vol. i. , pp. 49, 81. ) It may also be remarked, that verse51 of chap. iii. ,* which describes the three children as praising God with onevoice, only, has been claimed as an additional argument in support of the commentators, who, in the whole of that history, discover a representation of the Trinity. " Tunc hi TRES quasi ex Uno ore laudabant et glorificabant etbenedicebant Deum in fornace."

• M. Didron here refers to v. 28 of the Apocryphal book called the "Song of the Three Children. " In Tremellius, the passage will be found in the

Adjectiones in Danielem," v. 51, among the Apocryphal books. -ED.66THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 19EPH- DURAND EXLIGN IN LIGN DELFig. 133. THE TRINITY AT THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST.Italian carving on wood, XIV cent.*The carving on wood from which the above engraving is copied, wasc 220 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.The New Testament is far more precise; it both namesthe Trinity and shows it in visible substance.Jesus said to his Apostles, " Go ye therefore and teach allnations, baptising them in the name of the Father and ofthe Son, and of the Holy Ghost. " (Matt. xxviii. 19. ) Our Saviour says to his disciples elsewhere, " And I will pray theFather and he shall give you another Comforter, that he mayabide with you for ever, even the spirit of truth. " (St.John xiv. 16, 17.) St. John, in his first Epistle, declaresthat there are three who bear record in heaven, "theFather, the Word, and the Holy Ghost; and these threeare one." (1 St. John v. , 7.) These texts distinctlyname the three Divine persons, uniting them in the samephrase; but at the baptism of Jesus Christ the Trinity wasmade visibly manifest, and in the same action."AndJesus, when he was baptised, went up straightway out ofthe water and lo, the heavens were opened unto him, andhe saw the spirit of God descending like a dove and lightingupon him and lo, a voice from heaven, saying, This is mybeloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." (St. Matt. iii.16, 17.)

The doctrine of the Trinity, when its formula had oncebeen clearly set forth and visibly demonstrated, soon tookpossession of men's minds. The Old Testament was perusedand re-perused; men sought to find the truth unveiled inpassages which were obscure or had hitherto been passed over unremarked. It was then that the plural numberused in the book of Genesis-the threefold acclamations ofthe Seraphim-the three fingers of God, on which the worldis suspended *-the three Angels entertained by Abrahambrought from Italy by M. Paul Durand, to whom it belongs. It is a work of the fourteenth century, and yet it will be seen that already, that is, in the fourteenth century, either from negligence, or perhaps pure forgetfulness,neither the nimbus of the Father nor that of the Son, cruciform . TheHoly Ghost is surrounded by an aureole, and could not, therefore, have animbus also. This example of the baptism of our Lord is one of the mostperfect that has ever come to my knowledge; it has something of a Byzantine character and feature.

• Isaiah xl. 12 of the Vulgate: " Quis appendet tribus digitis molem terræ. " In our version it is: " And comprehended the dust of the earth in a

measure." The version of Tremellius and Junius: " Aut complexus esttrientali pulverem terræ? " In a French version published at Rochelle, 1616:Qui est celui qui a compris la poussière de la terre avec une tierce? " -Ed.66THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 21-the three children thrown into the furnace-were regardedas allusions to the Trinity, as symbols or at least as figuresof the three Divine persons. *

After making inquiry into history, men next interrogatedthe human soul, and in it they discovered a reflection of theTrinity. The soul, made in the image of God, was one insubstance and triple in its attributes. The power of theFather, the goodness of the Son, the wisdom of the HolyGhost were repeated in miniature in the will, the love, andthe intelligence of the human soul.The soul has the power of knowing, desiring, and doingevil, precisely in the same manner as it possesses that oflearning, willing, and accomplishing good, with the facultieswhich it has at its disposal. This is a necessary consequenceof the nature of man, and of the imperfect liberty of hiscondition. Complete evil, that is absolute evil in man,appears under three aspects, corresponding with the attributes of the soul. In the supernatural class -the classinfinite-God is the absolute perfection of good, and Satanof evil. God is one person in three hypostases; Satan is oneperson in three, or rather with three faces. Theologiansand artists of the middle ages thus understood and depictedthe fulness of virtue and of vice. In some representations

• Thefollowing extract from the writings of the liturgist, Gulielmus Durandus,

will illustrate the feeling with which the Trinity was regarded in the middle ages, and form the complement of the quotations already given: " Dicens Deum singulariter deorum fugit pluralitatem ' Audi Israel, Dominus Deustuus, unus est.' (Deut. vi . 4. ) Et Apostolus, ' Unus est Deus, una fides, unumbaptisma.' (Eph. iv. 5. ) Dicens vero Patrem incipit personas distinguere, de quibus Esaias, Quis appendet tribus digitis molem terræ.' (Esaias xl. 12. )Et alibi, Seraphim clamabant Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus.' (Esa. vi. 3. ) Et Dominus, Baptisate omnes gentes in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti.' (Matt. 28, 19.) Et Joannes, Tres sunt qui testimonium dant incœlo; Pater, Verbum et Spiritus Sanctus. ' ( 1 John, v. 7. ) * Pater est prima,non tempore, sed auctoritate, in Trinitate persona. Quod sequitur omni- potentem, nomen est essentiale, ideoque illud ad substantivum Deum , vel adrelativum Patrem, non sine ratione referimus, dicentes credo in Deum Patremomnipotentem, vel credo in Patrem omnipotentem. Similiter et quod sequitur;Creatorem cœli et terræ. "-Gulielmus Durandus, Rationale, lib . iv. , De Symbolo.6

• This is the verse of the three heavenly witnesses so much contested by commentators. It is now universally considered to be an interpolation of the

copyist. -ED.22 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.God is exhibited under the aspect of a man with three faces,one for each person; and there are others which representthe Devil as a human being, with three faces on a singletrunk, as in the drawing subjoined.Let this diabolical Trinity be compared with several of thedivine Trinities already given, or which will hereafter beFig. 134. THE TRINITY OF EVIL.From a French Miniature of the XIII cent.*inserted, and it will be seenthat the idea by whichartists were guided in the execution of these representations was in both cases the same. But evil is insome sort more wicked, thangoodness is good. In thefollowing design, the SatanicTrinityis depicted as exaltedto the highest degree of power. Three heads in thelower part of the body- three or four heads on thebreast-three heads or facesin the upper part of thebody, fixed on the neck, andthose faces surmounted bythree stags' horns, thornlike and sharp-pointed. Inthe right hand of this dreadmonarch of evil is a sceptrefleury, with three heads of monsters.Time, which is the finite image of a boundless eternity,was regarded during the middle ages under the threeaspects of the past, the present, and the future. The present was not recognised, or but imperfectly, by the Pagans.tBut in the eyes of Christians it had more value than thepast, and as much as the future. The Romans represented

• The above drawing is taken from a curious manuscript in the Bibliothèque

Royale, entitled Emblemata Biblica, and belonging to the thirteenthcentury. Few manuscripts are equally rich in miniatures; it contains no less than three hundred.Delille, the poet, who was semi-pagan both in sentiment and language,strove to suppress the idea of the present when he wrote the following line:-" Le moment où je parle est déjà loin de moi."THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 23་་་Fig. 135.-THE TRINITY OF ABSOLUTE EVIL.From a French Miniature of the xv cent.*Janus, the genius or personification of Time, by a figure

• French manuscript in the Bibl. Royale, Histoire du Saint- Graal.

24 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.with one head and two faces. Their " Janus Bifrons "viewed the past with the face that looked backwards, andinspected the future with that placed in front; certain ofthe Christian artists, inserted between these two faces thatof the present, as in the engraving subjoined.This little figure with three faces on one single trunk,eating and drinking to celebrate the commencement of anew year, is in effect a Janus; it is placed at the head ofthe calendar, forming a frontispiece to the month ofJanuary. But it is a Christian Janus or rather a perfectedimage of Time. What indeed is life without the present?The remembrance of the past, and anticipations of thefuture, apart from realities of the present, can be nothingmore than vanished dreams, or reveries yet unreal andNo. 6770. This fearful image of Satan, is presiding over an assembly of demons who deliberate on the birth of Merlin, by whose means they proposed to repairthe injury which the devil had sustained through Christ, by his death and descent into hell. I am indebted to the friendship of M. Paulin Paris, Memberof the Institute, and Conservateur of the Bibliothèque Royale, for my acquaint- ance with this remarkable miniature, which was communicated to me by him.

• We say, " certain of the Christian artists," because it must be confessed that the influence of the two-visaged Janus, the classic " Janus bifrons,"

continued in force during the whole middle ages. It is with two faces, notthree, that he is constantly figured in various places; particularly in the western porches of the Cathedrals of Chartres, of Strasbourg, and of Amiens,and in the Abbey of St. Denis. A man with two heads and one single bodyis seen seated at a table covered with food; one face is sad and bearded , the other gay, beardless , and youthful. The bearded head represents the year which is about to close, the thirty- first of December; the youthful head is apersonification of the opening year, the first of January. The old head isplaced next the empty side of the table; he has consumed all his provisions:before the young head, on the contrary, are several loaves, and dishes, and the servant, a little child , appears to be bringing others. This child is an additionalpersonification of the coming year; it completes the youthful head of Janus.In fact, a child accompanies both the bearded and the beardless head; but, on the side of the old man, it appears to be dead, and the door of a little temple isbeing closed upon the body; while that on the side of the young man issuesjoyously from a similar temple. The one is dying and retiring from the world, the other entering it, filled with life and animation. A completemonography of these Christian types of Janus would be highly interesting.The elementary principles might be gathered from sculpture, painted windows,and more especially, the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts. The subject is extremely curious, and deserves to be recommended to the notice of suchyoung antiquaries as are about to commence the study of mediaval iconography.The present time, too, is favourable for such researches, as men's minds seem at length disposed to take some interest in Christian symbolism.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 25undeveloped. The present alone wins pardon for the past and grace for the future.The present, the offspring of the past, is, according to theprofoundly Christian idea of Leibnitz, big with the future.DFig. 136. FIGURE OF TIME WITH THREE FACES .From a French Miniature of the XIV cent.*Thus then, in this instance, as in others, Christianity surpasses the limits of ancient civilisation . Christianityindeed, revived many antique ideas, but while preserving, itat the same time made it its glory, to exalt and enrich themwith at least one new element.The number three became more and more sacred. It wasThis personification of the year with three faces, is to be found in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsénal, MS. Théol. Lat. , 133 , Officium Ecclesiasticum.It is placed at the commencement of the manuscript, below the month of January; the present is drinking and taking nourishment; the past and thefuture are content to meditate; one appears to remember, for the last time;the other, perhaps, aiready begins to hope.26 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.proclaimed by Christians to be pre- eminently the sovereignand truly divine number. Defining and circ*mscribingthat Pagan axiom which had said, Numero Deus imparegaudet, it fixed the odd number at three. The doctrineof the Trinity having once been revealed, violence was oftendone to things the most compact, indivisible, and hom*ogeneousin their nature, in order that they might be divided intothree parts, and again recomposed into unity. An entirehistory of men and events, the History of the Celts ofGreat Britain, was compressed, either by its own tendencyor by force, into divisions of three compartments each; itresembles a piece of music, regulated from beginning to endby the triple-time measure.These historical measures arecalled " triads . " *It will suffice to give merely the heads of the chapters composing thisextraordinary history, which is constantly falsified by symbolism and theternary system ." Triads of the Island of Britain, which are triads of memorable things, ofrecollections and sciences, relating to the famous men, and the deeds done in Britain, and concerning the circ*mstances and misfortunes which at several periods have desolated the nation of the Cambrians. These are the threenames given to the Island of Britain—the three principal divisions of the Island of Britain-the three pillars of the nation in the Island of Britain- the three domestic tribes of the Island of Britain-the three refugee tribesthe three sedentary invaders—the three transitory invaders—the three cheating invaders the three disappearings of the Island of Britain—the three terrible events of the Island of Britain-the three combined expeditions which started from the Island of Britain-the three treacherous rencounters which tookplace in the Island of Britain -the three notable traitors of the Island of Britain-the three contemptible traitors who enabled the Saxons to take the crown of the Island of Britain from the Cambrians-the three bards whocommitted the three benevolent assassinations ' (assassinats bienfaisants)of the Island of Britain-the three frivolous causes of the combat in the Island of Britain-the three discoveries and concealments of the Island ofBritain-the three governing energies of the Island of Britain-the three vigorous men of the Island of Britain-the three deeds that occasioned the reduction of Lloegrie, and wrested it from the Cambrians-the first three extraordinary works of the Island of Britain-the three lovers of the Island of Britain-the three first mistresses of Arthur-the three knights of the court of Arthur who guarded the Graal-the three men who wore golden shoes in the Island of Britain-the three royal domains established by Rhadri the Great in Cambria." " A king of Ireland, named Cormack, " adds M. J. Michelet,"in the year 260, wrote De Triadibus. Certain triads are preserved inIrish tradition under the title of Fingal. The Irish marched to battle in threes the Scotch Highlanders are ranged three deep." See Histoire deFrance, par M. Michelet, vol. i . , pp . 461-71 , edit. in 8vo.THE MANIFESTATIONS OF THE TRINITY. 27With the studies of the middle ages, which are resumedin the present day, their mysticism also has revived. Nolonger content to recognise the number three, and theTrinity itself, in objects in which that symbol is evidentlydisplayed, it is discovered where probably it has no actualexistence. It has been asserted, for example, that mediævalartists composed a hymn in honour of the number three;and that in erecting the porches of the cathedrals which weare pleased to find consist of three stages in height, andintersected in breadth by three divisions, they constructedgeometrical figure of the Trinity. The trefoil again, soabundant in Gothic decorations, is supposed to have beenadopted solely in honour of the Trinity; but as porches offour or five stages, and four or five divisions, are as numerousas floriations of four, five, six, and seven lobes, the idea ofthe Trinity can hardly have been so constantly present tothe artist's mind, as in our day is supposed to have been the case. *Whenever three objects are seen united, whether plants,animals, monsters, or men, the idea of the divine Trinityimmediately presents itself to the minds of these mystics.If three fishes be sculptured on the baptismal font ofDenmark, three hideous apes upon a similar vessel inFrance, or three fantastic personages carved in relief on thetympanum of a church door, those three strange or monstrous beings are immediately recognised as symbols ofThe learned and illustrious M. Boisserée, in his folio, Déscription de la Cathédrale de Cologne, published at Paris in 1825, writes thus-" The fundamental principles of ancient church architecture are based, firstly, upon the equilateral triangle originally adopted by the Pythagoreans as an emblem of Minerva or wisdom, and subsequently employed by our ancestors as the symbol of the Trinity; secondly, on the dodecagon, a figure resulting from the application of the triangle to a circle, a combination regarded by the ancients as well as by our own ancestors, as containing all musical and astrono- mical proportion . " We regret that we cannot admit these theories, all ingenious as they are. In a work recently published (Manuel de l'HistoireGénérale de l'Architecture, par M. Daniel Ramée, vol. ii. , in 12mo, Paris,1843, ) the symbolic theory of numbers, and of the number three in particular,is again revived; but it is carried in this case to the most absurd lengths.Such imaginings are, in respect of truth, what dreams are in comparison with the clear waking thoughts of a man of sound and circ*mspect judgment.Architecture, even in its history, will lose more than it gains from dreams of such a nature. The clear and decisive judgment of French writers is shown by their treating all similar odd inventions simply as aberrations of the intellect.28 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost.To endeavour to extract some new idea from every remarkable fact, is indeed a highly laudable attempt, but it requiresto be guided and enlightened by reason.*Objects in which the Trinity may be distinctly recognised both in intention and in reality, are found in sufficientnumber to make it unnecessary to seek or create fictitiousresemblances. Many of these will be noticed in treatingof the direct and indirect worship rendered to the dogma ofthe Trinity, that is, to God, revealing himself in his threehypostases.THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY.Eight days after the great feast of Pentecost, instituted inhonour of the Holy Ghost, that of the Trinity is celebrated.Christmas, we are told, is the festival of God the Father, tEaster that of the Son, and Pentecost of the Holy Ghost;and eight days after Pentecost these three distinct solemni-

• Frederick Münter, Bishop of Zealand, in Denmark, of whom we have already spoken, published, in 1825, at Altona, the first and second parts of a

work in 4to. , entitled Sinnbilder und Kunstvorstellungen der alten Christen (Symbolic and Figurative Representations of the early Christians) . He there speaks of the three fishes on the baptismal font in the church of Beigetad, in Denmark, as symbolising the Trinity. All these singular and misty interpretations have their origin in Germany and the North of Europe. In a report addressed by M. Schmit to the " Comité Historique des Arts et Monuments,"and which was published in 1842, under the title of Souvenirs d'un VoyageArchéologique dans l'Ouest, we read, page 33, " On the south side of the church of Notre- Dame-des- Neiges, at Brelevenez (Brittany) , rise three pillars,the lower parts forming buttresses to the side aisle; they then spring up, alone,to the height (which however is very trifling, ) of the ridge of the roof.Those on the left and right, which are rather less elevated than that in the centre, are truncated, with square heads; the third, in the centre, has a slopedcoping. The porch is semicircular, surmounted by a gable forming the summit of the two eaves; it is placed between the second and third pillars. Local traditions speak of this arrangement as emblematic of the Trinity, and adopted by the Knights Templars in the construction of their churches. Iknow not whether this fact be decisively proved; but if not, the three pillars might with equal probability be supposed to refer to Mount Calvary, especially as they are here erected on a lonely mountain , at an elevation of not less than 100 mètres. It seems more simple, and may possibly be more correct,to consider these pillars merely as buttresses, raised to the intended elevation of the building, which is evidently unfinished. " Our assent must be given to the last of these conjectures, as being more simple, more sensible, and consequently more likely to be correct.At the close of the middle ages, about the period of the Rénaissance, menTHE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY. 29ties are combined in one. An entire office was composed inhonour of the Trinity, but it seems singular that Christmas,Easter, and Pentecost, which hold the rank of grand annualfeasts, that is, have the supreme grade in the hierarchy offestivals, should concentrate themselves in one feast inferiorby three degrees, and descend into a minor solemnity.Still the Trinity has always received great honours andworship. At the conclusions of introits, prayers, proses,hymns, psalms, and responses, the doxology associates eachof the three persons in the glories, and sometimes even blends them together in one phrase. *first became anxious to assign to the Father a special festival. To create anew one would have been more simple, and would have shown a more proper feeling, but historical difficulties presented themselves. In fact, God the Father having never visibly manifested Himself, one could not with propriety consecrate the memory of an event which had never occurred. Liturgists therefore proposed to set apart Christmas Day to the Father. Yet to do so,was evidently violating the actual signification of events. The day on whichMary gave birth to the Infant Saviour; on which the Word was made flesh ,and born in a stable, ought undoubtedly to belong either to Jesus Christ or the Virgin Mary: the Father here acts only secondarily. Consequently, not- withstanding the devotional wish of certain theologians, and the efforts of numerous liturgists ( See G. Durandus, Rationale Div. Off. ) , Christmas was dedicated as before to Jesus and the Virgin, and the Father had still noespecial festival. A manuscript in the Bibliothèque Royale opens the festival of Christmas with a representation of the Father, and that of Easter, in like manner, with a picture of the Son; but usually, it may almost be said always,we meet with the picture of the Nativity at Christmas, and the name of the Feast of the Nativity (in French Noël, Latin Natalis) still distinguishes the day of our Saviour's birth. The seventh volume of the works of St. Tommasi,edited by Bianchini, contains a note upon a supplication requiring the institution of a festival in honour ofthe Father Eternal.

• The " Gloria Patri, et Filio , et Spiritui Sancto," is attributed to St. Jerome, who is said to have sent it to Pope Damasus, * who directed it to be sung at the end of the Psalms. The hymns composed by Saint Ambrose,

and which are sung at the " Hours," either on Sundays, or week- days terminate in a Gloria addressed to the three Divine persons:-"Deo Patri sit gloriaEjusque soli Filio Cum Spiritu paracl*to,Nunc et per omne seculum . "Or else: " Præsta, Pater piissime,Patrique compar unice,Cum Spiritu paracl*to,Regnans per omne sæculum."

• Elected Pope of Rome, a. D. 366, died ▲. D. 385. St. Jerome was his secretary.

30 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.The Trinity, like the Holy Ghost, gave the name to areligious order called the Trinitarians. *Churches and monasteries were erected throughoutChristendom in honour of the Holy Trinity. The Abbeyof the Holy Trinity at Florence is famous from the finepaintings it contains, and which were executed, according toVasari, by Giovanni Cimabue. Arezzo had, and probablyhas still, a convent of nuns of the Holy Ghost (di SantoSpirito) . At Caen, Rouen, Fécamp, Poitiers, Vendôme,Angers, Lefay (in the diocese of Coutances) , and in severalother places, there were celebrated abbeys and churches dedicated to the Holy Trinity.The name of Trisay- la- Sainte-Vierge, in the diocese ofLuçon, is probably derived from the acclamation three timesrepeated by the celestial spirits in honour of the Trinity. †St. Williborde, bishop of Trèves, who died in 739, erected amonastery in honour of the Holy Trinity, in the basilica of which he was interred. ‡Not only were churches and convents erected in honour ofthe union of the three Divine persons, but the configurationThe Trinitarians date from the year 1198. The Order was founded bySt. John de Matha and Felix de Valois, for the repurchase or redemption ofcaptives. The regulations of their order were approved by Pope Innocent III. ,who gave them, in 1199, a white mantle decorated with a red cross withdouble branches. This cross also surmounted the Holy Spirit, which wasengraven on their seal. I am indebted for a copy of this seal to the courtesyof M. le Baron de Girardot, Conseiller de Préfecture et correspondant du Comité des Arts. One of the articles of the rules of the Trinitarians runs thus" Omnes ecclesiæ istius ordinis intitulentur nomine sanctæ Trinitatis et sintplani operis." This planum opus, imposed as an obligation on the Trinitarians, is a point of some importance in the history of architecture.+ In Greek, Trisagion, Latinised by Trizaium, Trisagium. The Sanctus,Sanctus, Sanctus ( äyios, äyios, dylos) , was inserted by St. Ambrose and St. Augustine in the Te Deum, which is said to have been composed by them in common, both words and music. The two great doctors thus caused to be repeated upon earth the same hymn which St. John heard in heaven, and ofwhich he speaks in the Apocalypse, iv. 8. In Greece, numerous angelspainted in fresco or in mosaic, bear in their hands a kind of banner, on which is written, “ äyios, äɣios, äytos." There was, near Mantes, a conventof the Celestines, named the Trinity (See Catalogue Joursanvault, vol. ii . ,No. 1244 ); and at Beaulieu, in Touraine, there was also an Abbey of the Holy Trinity.66The life of St. Williborde was written by Alcuin.THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY. 31of those churches and convents, recalled by the numberor form of certain parts, the idea of the Trinity. St. Benoîtd'Aniane, the Carlovingian Apostle of the south of France,constructed a church which he dedicated, not to any saint,but to the Holy Trinity. To the high altar he annexedthree subordinate altars, designing that the three personsshould be symbolised by the latter, and the Divine unity by the former. The high altar, emblem of the two Testaments, was circular without, hollow within, and in the backa small door was inserted, affording access to shrines andrelics of saints which were there kept on ordinary days.*One altar in that church was dedicated to St. Michael,another to the apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, a third toSt. Stephen. Another church, dedicated to the Virgin,contained one altar, consecrated to St. Martin; another toSt. Benedict, and the high altar belonged no doubt to theVirgin. Lastly, in the cemetery, a third church was erectedand dedicated to St. John the Baptist. Thus in that conventthere were three churches: one dedicated to the Virgin,with three altars; and another to the Trinity, having alsothree altars, but subordinate to the high altar.At Fleury, now St. Benoît-sur- Loire, there were, notone, two, or three churches only, dedicated to the Trinity,

• See the original, which is not without value, in the Act. SS. Ord. S. Bened., IV. Siècle Bénédictin, le partie, de l'an 800 à l'an 855. The life of

St. Benoît d'Aniane was written by Ardon or Smaragdus, his disciple. At Munich is a church dedicated to the Holy Trinity. In that edifice the number three is inscribed upon the altars and in the ground-plan, which is a kind of trefoil. The church is covered with paintings of historical, psychological, andphysical subjects, either natural or symbolical; making allusion to the number three and its divine properties. God is creating the sun, the moon, and the earth (three distinct worlds) , and is represented with a nimbus of the tri- angular form. Jesus is transfigured in the presence of Moses and Elias, and St. Peter requests permission to erect three tents on the mountain . A handperforms a benediction with three fingers, in the name of the three divine persons. A large A shines resplendent with the following inscription: Lineaterna est unum alpha. Beneath a hand, holding a candlestick with three branches, is seen, Tenet una trinum. Below a vessel with three sails isread, Tribus his pellitur una. An eye is shining in a triangle of flame,with three circles intertwined. Three mirrors reflect one single ray, emanating from the sun. Numerous other emblems adorn this curious church, which Ishould have described at length, did it not date from 1714, a period of novalue in respect of religious archæology.32 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.but the entire plan of the monastery bore inscribed upon itsarea, the idea of the Trinity. The ground plan was in theform of a delta, the mysterious triangle of the ancientalphabet. One point of this triangle turned towardsFrance; another to Burgundy, while the third was in thedirection of Aquitaine. " Fleury stood on the confines ofthree regions, like the present between the past and thefuture-like the perfect number between the imperfect andthe pluperfect." *Lastly, in a third instance, contemporaneous with thepreceding, the emblematic idea of the Trinity will be seencarried even to a puerile excess, in the plan and arrangementof an immense monastery, that of Saint Riquier.+ St.Angilbert, the son-in-law of Charlemagne, one of the companions and peers of that great Emperor, retired to Centula,and there re-built the monastery of Saint Riquier. Heerected three churches, one dedicated to St. Riquier, one tothe Virgin, and a third to St. Benedict. They were connected, one with the other, by a triangular cloister . Threesmaller churches, at the entrance of the three gates of themonastery, were besides dedicated to St. Michael, St. Gabriel,and St. Raphael. In the church of St. Benedict there were three altars: there were three altars also in the churches ofthe angels, three ciboria, and three lectoria . The monkswere three hundred in number-the children of the choirone hundred, divided into three sections-thirty- threechildren in the two last sections, and thirty-four in the

• The reader will remember what has been already said of the present,

which in the middle ages was esteemed superior both to the past and the future, while classic antiquity, which appears to suppress it, gave to Janus, the personification of time, two faces only. The original quotation relating to Fleury is here transcribed, as it refers both to historical and mystical facts:" Situs loci Floriacensis monasterii * * * instar trigoni visitur sisti, et, ut expressius dicam , in modum litteræ proprio statu cernitur sidereum cornu occupare. Nam a septentrione Franciam, ab oriente Burgundiam, ab australi vero parte Aquitaniam tangit. Sicque in confinio trium regionum, velut præsens inter præteritum et futurum, naturali ordine obtinet primatum, et sicut perfectus numerus inter imperfectum et plusquam perfectum. Nam medietate vicem et locum possidet virtutum." -Act. SS. Ord. S. Bened., IV. Siècle Bénédictin, " Histoire de l'Illation de St. Benoît," vers l'an 883.A long extract from this passage has been given verbatim, vol. i.pp. 61 , 62. A further analysis of the same passage is here given: thisrepetition was rendered necessary by the subject at present under consideration.ON THE WORSHIP OF THE TRINITY. 33first. * The whole body was divided into three choirs .One hundred monks and thirty- four children attended on thealtar and formed the choir of the Holy Saviour: one hundredmonks and thirty-three children belonged to the choir ofSt. Riquier, and an equal number to the choir of the Passion.These three choirs chanted the services in common; butafterwards, while two of the three divisions remained in thechurch, the third division rested. In this puerile affectation of repeating the number three, the bias of men's mindsin favour of the Trinity is easily perceptible.The cloister of St. Riquier is no longer in existence, butat Planés in Roussillon, a little church is still standing,triangular in form, and surmounted by a cupola. The ideawhich prompted the construction ofthis curious edifice musthave been analogous with that by which Angilbert's designswere governed. In Rome, as it is said, the chevalier Berninhas distinguished by the triangular form the church ofSt. Sapienza which is dedicated to the Trinity. Wisdomin point of fact, is to the principal virtues, what God is tothe Divine persons. Wisdom is the moral unity whenceproceed Faith, Hope, and Charity, like daughters of onecommon mother. These three daughters of Wisdom, andWisdom herself, the parent of the three, owed their existenceto the lively imagination of the Byzantines. We meet inlegendary history, with the life of Santa Sophia, the mother ofthree children of rare virtue and incomparable beauty,St. Faith, St. Hope, and St. Charity.The mother and daughters having been converted toChristianity and baptised, preached the truth, and in theirturn converted a countless number of Pagans, and became

• Thirty-three only would have been required by a strict attention to rule,

in order to perfect the symbolism.+ Act SS. Ord. S. Bened., 1e partie, du IVe siécle bénéd. , from the year 800 to 855. "Life of St. Angilbert." Angilbert, surnamed Homer in thePalatine Academy, as Charlemagne was there called David, united in his own mind, in their most brilliant and concentrated expression, the mystical ideas prevalent during the reign of the Carlovingian race. At that period,however, numerous discussions arose concerning the Trinity and the procession of the Holy Ghost.See the Bulletin Archéologique, published by the " Comité Historique des Arts et Monuments," vol. i. , p. 133, for a description of this church,written by M. Jaubert de Passa, a non-resident member of the committee.VOL. IL D34 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.themselves subjected to persecution. Being led before theproconsul, they refused to offer sacrifices to false gods, andwere therefore tortured and at length beheaded. The entirelegend of this interesting family from their birth to theirdeath, is painted on one of the walls of a convent on MountAthos .* Among the relics of virgins, in the Cathedral atCanterbury, are preserved those of St. Sophia, and herdaughters, Faith, Hope, and Charity. †This personification and genealogy of Virtue, remind us ofthe personification and genealogy of Intelligence alreadymentioned, and which is figured in a manuscript bible in thepublic library at Rheims. Philosophy engenders Physics,Logic, and Ethics, exactly as St. Sophia gives birth to Faith,Hope, and Charity.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY.Aworship so solemn, so highly developed as that renderedto the Trinity, would naturally occasion numerous represen- tations of the three Divine persons united in one group,and this is accordingly found to be the case.

• The great monastery of Chilandari. In the Byzantine manuscript which has already been quoted, instructions are given for painting St. Sophia and her three daughters, St. Faith, St. Hope, and St. Charity, who were all beheaded.

"De reliquiis St. Sapientiæ et filiarum ejus, Fidei, Spei, et Charitatis" ( Vide the Monasticon Anglicanum, by Dodsworth and Dugdale, vol i. , p. 5) . I dis- cover from this singular fact, that a certain Byzantine influence was formerly in operation in England. It must be observed also, that the true Greek cross isnot that with four equal limbs, since Procopius, a Greek writer, asserts that the foot of the cross ought to be longer than the arms or the top. Greek crosses are with double cross arms, like those engraved above, and which were brought from Athens and from Mount Athos. Some relics procured fromGreece, and presented by the Kings of France to the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, were enclosed in cases made in the form of a cross with double arms.Now, it is precisely on this plan that several of the large English cathedrals are built, and in this fact also, I discover that England has been subjected to aByzantine influence, the traces of which deserve to be studied and investigated.Nothing analogous is to be found in France; Gothic or Christian art is withus " autochthone," except in a very few instances.In the Manuscript of Herrade, " Hortus deliciarum, " Philosophy is represented sitting on a throne, and pouring from her bosom the sources of the liberal arts. The floriations of her diadem are formed by three human heads,Ethics, Logic, and Physics, as saith the Legend.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 35The art eagerly took possession of a motive that addresseditself to the imagination with such singular force, and whichwas capable ofbeing diversified to an almost unlimited extent.The centuries which elapsed between the first rise ofChristianity and the Rénaissance, and during which Trinitieswere constantly designed, may be divided into four periods.The first division comprehends the eight first centuries; thesecond extends from the ninth to the twelfth; the thirdreaches to the fifteenth century; the last period comprehendsthe Renaissance, that is to say, the fifteenth and more particularly the sixteenth century. With reference to architecture, the first period is called the Latin, because at thattime, the basilicas of Constantine predominated; the secondis the Romanesque, because the Latin style then began,amongst us more particularly, to be combined with indigenous elements; the third is the Gothic or ogival; the fourth, the Rénaissance.During the eight first centuries Trinities were merely in astate of experimental preparation; various different modes oftreatment were then attempted, which re- appeared in a morecomplete state of development in succeeding centuries. Notone really perfect group of the Trinity is to be found eitherin the catacombs, or upon ancient sarcophagi.Jesus is frequently seen, but alone, or at most accompanied only by the dove, which symbolises the Holy Ghost.A hand is perceived, which ought to be intended for thatof God the Father, holding a crown above the head of theSon, but in the absence of the Holy Ghost. The Cross andthe Lamb, symbols of the Son, the hand revealing the presence of the Father, and Doves, sometimes symbolising theHoly Ghost, * are frequently seen in the fresco paintings,or on the sculptured marbles of the catacombs. But thesesymbols are almost always isolated; they are very rarelyunited in one spot, or upon the same monument, and neverlinked together and bound up in one.Yet after the fourth century, in the time of Paulinus,bishop of Nola, who was born in 353, and died in 431,

• I say, sometimes, because the dove sculptured or painted in the catacombs is most generally that bringing back the olive branch to Noah, and not the dove ofthe Holy Ghost. See on this subject the " Roma Sotterranea" of Bosio.

D 236 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.groups of the Trinity made their appearance. In the apseof the basilica of St. Felix, erected by St. Paulinus himselfat Nola, is a group of the Trinity executed in mosaic.St. Paulinus wrote the following lines in explanation of thesubject:"Pleno coruscat Trinitas mysterio:Stat Christus agno, vox Patris cælo tonat,Et per columbam Spiritus- Sanctus fluit,Crucem corona lucido cingit globo;Cui coronæ sunt corona apostoli,Quorum figura est in columbarum choro.Pia Trinitatis unitas Christo coït."Thus, in this Trinity, Christ is figured by a lamb, and theHoly Ghost by a dove. The Father is said to speak, butthe poet does not say in what manner he was depicted. *In the same letter, -a little afterwards, when describing thepainting which had been executed in the basilica ofSt. Felix at Fondi, in the interior of the apse, -St. Paulinus adds-"Sub cruce sanguineâ niveo stat Christus in agno,Agnus ut innocua injusto datus hostia leto.Alite quem placida sanctus perfundit hiantemSpiritus, et rutila genitor de nube coronat. "The lamb is here added to the Cross, in order to completeor to double the symbol of Christ. The Spirit is always inthe form of a dove-it is the Divine bird; but the Father, ifnot represented entirely in the human form, must at leastbe figured by a hand holding a crown above the Saviour's head. The above are the earliest known indications of representations of the Trinity. It should be observed that these groups are mosaics, adorning the apses of basilicas . In fact, itis in mosaics and at the extreme end of Latin basilicas, thatrepresentations of the Trinity, resembling the second of

• See the works of St. Paulinus, Epistola 12ª ad Severum. A little

before the text just quoted, Paulinus had said—66 Atque ubi Christus ibi Spiritus et Pater est. "But that verse signified only, that in beholding Christ, the Father and the Sonalso were consequently seen, and that each of the three persons was represented under a special figure.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 37those described by Paulinus, are most commonly seen.Inthe churches of St. Damien, and St. Cosmo at Rome, in530; in St. Mark's, in the same city, in 774; in the Cathe- dral of Padua towards the close of the eighth century; inSt. Prassede, in Rome, in 818, Trinities were executed inmosaic, which might be taken for copies of those of St. Paulinus. *This theme remained in favour at Rome as late as thethirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Pope Nicholas IV. ,between the years 1288 and 1294, caused the apse of theChurch of St. Giovanni in Laterano, to be decorated, anda large mosaic there, stands out in most resplendent brilliancy; it contains in the centre a representation of theTrinity. A Cross, covered with precious stones, is elevatedon the summit of a mountain symbolic of Paradise. TheHoly Ghost in the form of a dove, hovers above the Crossand envelopes it in a flood of radiance. Above all is theFather, emerging from the clouds, and with the bust andbare head alone visible; the latter encircled by a doublenimbus, the square and the circular. †Another type of the Trinity constantly to be met within works of the fourteenth century, appears to have been inuse, from the earliest Christian epoch.The following history is given in " Jacobus de Voragine,at the Festival of the Exaltation of the Cross .""In the year of our Lord 615, God permitted that hispeople should be scourged by the cruelty of the Pagans.Chosroes, king of the Persians, subjected to his empire allthe kingdoms of the world. He visited Jerusalem , andquitted in awe the sepulchre of our Saviour; but carriedaway with him notwithstanding that portion of the HolyCross, which had been deposited there by St. Helena.Chosroes, wishing to be adored by all mankind as a deity,commanded the erection of a tower of gold and silver, ornamented with glistening gems; there too, he placed imagesof the sun, the moon, and stars . By means of narrow and

• Ciampini, Vetera Monimenta. Engravings ofthese mosaics, and ofmany other like designs, are given in that work. [ See Tav., xvi. , xlvii. , lii . , and

liv. The latter is a very fine example.-ED. ]† Adescription has already been given of this interesting mosaic, of which M. Tournal favoured me with a design.38 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.hidden conduits he caused rain to fall as if he had indeedbeen God. Horses were placed on the top of the tower,round which they dragged chariots, thus shaking the build- ing and producing sounds resembling thunder. Thenrelinquishing the kingdom to his son, the profane maniacretired into that pharos, and having commanded the Crossof our blessed Saviour to be placed near him, he desiredall men to call him God. According to the account given in the book ' De Mitrali Officio, ' * Chosroes seated ona throne like that of God the Father, placed the Cross onhis right hand in the place assigned to God the Son,and a co*ck on his left, instead of the Holy Ghost; forhimself, he commanded that he should be called God the Father."The Emperor Heraclius made war on the son of Chosroesand defeated him; he entered his capital and penetrated tothe apartment of the old king, who had then become insane.Hefound him seated in his tower ofgold and silver, as in a sortof paradise, like the Father Almighty between the other twoDivine persons . Chosroes refusing to become a Christian,Heraclius cut off his head with one stroke of the sword, inthe presence of his painted angels and the co*ck.t

• This book, so frequently quoted by liturgists and legendaries, is attributed to a bishop of Cremona, Richard, who lived in 1195. The Mitrale, vel Summa de Divinis Officiis is still in manuscript. It is , however, a work well worthy of publication. Such books as the " Mitrale" would be of the greatest service to literati engaged in the study of Christian antiquities.

The following is the original of this important passage, which has been here translated literally: -" Anno domini 615, permittente Domino flagellaripopulum suum per sævitiam paganorum. Cosdroe, rex Persarum, omnia regna terrarum suo imperio subjugavit. Hierusalem autem veniens, a sepulcroDomini territus rediit, sed tamen partem S. Crucis quam St. Helena ibidem reliquerat asportavit. Volens autem ab omnibus coli ut Deus, turrim et auro et argento et interlucentibus gemmis fecit, et ibidem solis, lunæ et stellarum imagines collocavit. Per subtiles etiam et occultos ductus, quasi Deus, aquamdesuper infundebat, et in supremo specu equi quadrigas trahentes in circuitu ibant, ut quasi turrim moverent et tonitrua simularent. Filio igitur regno suo tradito, in tali phano prophanus residet, et juxta se crucem Domini collocans appellari ab omnibus se Deum jubet. Et, sicut legitur in libro Mitrali deOfficio' ipso Cosdroe in throno residens, tanquam Pater, lignum Crucis sibi adextris posuit loco Filii, et gallum a sinistris loco Spiritus-Sancti; ' se vero jussit Patrem nominari. " The Emperor Heraclius made war on the son of Chosroes, destroyed his army, and entered his royal city. "Cosdroe autem ignorabat exitum belli, quia, cum ab omnibus odiretur, sibi a nemine intimatur."CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 39In this description we have the living group ofthe ChristianTrinity mocked, mimicked, dramatised by an old Pagan whohad lost his senses. In this group the Father is an old man,the Son is represented by his cross, and the Holy Ghost bya co*ck, put in the place of the sacred dove. This motiveresembles that described by S. Paulinus, and exhibited in the various mosaics that have been mentioned above: stillit differs in certain points.It is similar in regard to the symbols, showing forth theDivine persons; but different in the general arrangement ofthe group, and the disposition of the symbols of which itis composed. In the description given by S. Paulinus, andin the mosaics, the Trinity is vertical; in the Golden Legend it is horizontal.S. Paulinus mentions the cross as placed below, and theHoly Ghost above the cross, and the Father surmountingthe whole. In the legend the Father is in the centre,having the cross on his right, and the Holy Ghost on theleft. Further, S. Paulinus and the Mosaicists place theHoly Ghost in the centre, while Chosroes as the AlmightyFather, places himself in the midst, and gives the left to theco*ck, his Holy Ghost. As we proceed, the differencebetween these two types will be more fully illustrated bydrawings.During the second period, from the ninth to the twelfthcentury, the two anterior types continue in use, * but areHeraclius autem ad eum pervenit et in throno aureo eum sedere reperiens,eidem dixit: Quia lignum S. Crucis secundum tuum modulum honorasti, sibaptismum et fidem Christi susceperis, adhuc vitam et regnum, paucis a te acceptis obsidibus, obtinebis. Si autem hoc implere contempseris, gladio meo te feriam et caput tuum prescidam.' Cum igitur ille acquiescere nollet,extracto gladio, eum protinus decollavit, et, quia rex fuerat, sepeliri præcepit."(Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda aurea, de Exaltatione S. Crucis. )

• These types continue during the whole of the middle ages, even in France where men were less faithful to Latin tradition. In the voussure of the central

door in the western porch of the collegiate church of Mantes, is a Trinity, represented by a cross, not carried merely, but exalted by two angels, by the Father who is of the same age and has the same features as the Son, and the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove, descending from heaven. The subjects are placed in vertical order, at the extremity of the three cordons. The Father is in the centre, thecross below, and the dove surmounting the whole. This sculpture dates from the twelfth century, or, perhaps, the close of the eleventh. This is a new and mostinteresting arrangement. I cannot speak of the Church of Mantes, without40 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.enriched with two new motives, one borrowed from thehuman figure, the other from geometrical forms.Anthropomorphism, * which was so repulsive to the firstChristians, and had appeared to them like a revival ofPaganism, did not meet with the same opposition during the middle ages, properly so called. Having attained theninth century, Christianity had no longer anything to fearfrom Pagan ideas; the fall of Paganism had long beenaccomplished. The Almighty Father whose hand only hadhitherto been shown or at most, his bust, was now representedat full length. Still no special form was assigned to him;he merely borrowed that of the Son, and from that timeforward, it became difficult to distinguish the one from theother. The Son continued to appear, as he had been seenon earth, under the figure of a man of lofty stature, beautifuland solemn, of from thirty to thirty-five years of age. Thedove of the Holy Ghost sometimes also threw off the veil of the bird-like form and assumed that of a man. Theologyhaving positively declared that the three persons were not only similar, but equal amongst themselves, artists extendedthat similitude to their representations, and occasionallyrepresented the three Divine hypostases as equal also.Saint Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in908, left behind him a manuscript in which the three personsare figured under the human form. The Father and theSon, clad in kingly apparel, with crowns on their heads andsceptres in their hands, both appear to be about thirty- fiveyears of age. The Holy Ghost is younger, and scarcelymore than eighteen or twenty-five. A similarity in personis apparent, but a difference in point of age. That latterdifference finally disappears, and in the manuscript ofHerrade, dating from the year 1180, it is replaced by absoluteidentity. The three Divine persons are of the same age, inthe same attitude, and of the same temperament; all wearingextolling M. de Wavrechin, the curé of that beautiful and ancient collegiate church, by whom it has been repaired and fitted up with truly archeological taste and science.

• By anthropomorphism must be understood, not the heresy to which that name has been given, but the figuring of Divine persons under the human form. It is the intention of the present work simply to state facts, not to test the soundness of doctrine.

CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 41also the same costume. Which is intended for the Father,which for the Son, and which for the Holy Ghost, in thisanthropomorphic Trinity?By comparison with other monuments, and bearing inmind the Scriptural texts already quoted, it may be supposedthat the Father is in the centre, the Son on the right hand,and the Holy Ghost on the left, such being the mostconstant custom. But the miniaturist appears in this instanceto have aimed at discomfiting both the antiquary and thetheologian. On the feet of one of the Divine persons he hastraced the stigmata, which, however, are scarcely visible inthe original manuscript. * The stigmata, of course, canbelong only to Christ the Saviour; yet it must be remembered that no similar marks are in the hands, and that evenon the feet they are of singular form, that of a cross,which could not have been produced by nails. That form,however, is undoubtedly symbolic, and it must be supposedthat the figure in the centre is that of Christ. Where thenis the Father? It is impossible to determine, becauseimpossible to decide whether the Holy Ghost is placed onthe left hand or on the right . The identity of persons thusappears to be almost absolute.TheTrinity, in opposition to an anthropomorphism so peculiarly complete and material as the above, is sometimes figured under the driest and most abstract form; that ofthe triangle,which is borrowed from geometry. It was thence thatthe triangular form, in which the convent of Fleury is built,assumed its mystical signification; thence too, St. Angilberterected the church of St. Riquier on a triangular plan, andin honour of the Trinity. The triangle, comprehendingthree angles in one single area, is a correct image of thethree persons, resolving themselves into one single God.The thirteenth century purchased to itself eternalglory, not merely by discovering and inventing newelements, that it threw into the crucible, whereinChristian and Catholic symbolism which had in formerages been elaborated, were then undergoing to a certain

• M. Durand, my designer, had not at first remarked them, and I found it

necessary to point out to him this microscopic point, and request him to correct his drawing. A few errors of this nature have slipped into our engravings,but whenever it has been impossible to correct them, they have been mentioned.42EMMCHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.PHDVR ANDEX- MS XIISEG 00028שB88∞88 8888&&·taciamhommeadimagine&fimilitudimenrametplitcundiatreSanela tridHitasFig. 137. THE TRINITY IN THREE HUMAN PERSONS OF IDENTICAL FIGURE.From a Manuscript ofthe XII cent.*"Hortus deliciarum." The above Trinity is introduced in illustrationCHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 43extent, the process of crystallisation , but rather by its havinggiven full development to elements of which only the germhad existed in preceding centuries. It is the deathlessglory of that epoch to have brought to maturity and formedinto a flower what preceding periods had been content merely to sow. The little Latin bell or 66" sonnette "(squilla), * as has been elsewhere observed, † became in theRomanesque period the church bell; but after the thirteenthcentury it swelled into the "bourdon. " The steeplebecame a bell turret, and in the thirteenth century a tower.The same may be observed with regard to Iconography.Trinities, which, during the first period were heteromorph,and the second alike in form, were still figured during thethird; but they were then completed, multiplied, andbrought to perfection. For one Latin Trinity, or two ofthe Romanesque period, we meet with perhaps twenty orthirty Gothic Trinities: they are found in the same relative proportion, starting even from the close of the twelfthcentury.At that time, as in the earliest period, Trinities are seen,in which the Father is revealed by a hand only; the Son bythe Cross, the Lamb, or the human form; and the Holy Ghost by the dove. The symbols of the three persons aregrouped vertically or horizontally, as in the first period:there are also, as in the second period, geometric andanthropomorphic Trinities.But the third period was not content to multiply, or toreproduce in considerable numbers, groups that had alreadybeen adopted; it modified and perfected them. To the crossof the Latin period the Divine figure of the crucified hadof the creation, at the moment when God, before creating man, says, " Faciamushominem ad imaginem et similitudinem nostram et præsit cunetis animantibus terræ ." The same text of Genesis is written on the scroll held by the threepersons.

• And note, that there be six kinds of bells which be used in the church:

namely, the "squilla, the cymbalum, the nota, the nohila (or double campana), the signum, and the campana. The squilla is rung in the triclinium, that is, in the refectory; the cymbalum in the cloister; the nota in the choir; the nohila, or double campana, in the clock; the campana in the campanile, the signum in the tower."-Durandus-first book of the Rationale, page 93.-Trans.+ Monographie de Notre Dame de Brou, in the Introduction.44 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.been attached in the Romanesque epoch; so, too, theequality of the Divine persons, which owed its origin to theRomanesque period, was, during the Gothic, most energetically and distinctly expressed. In the manuscript of

• *****

•P.DFig 138.-THE THREE DIVINE PERSONS FUSED ONE INTO THE OTHER.From a Spanish Miniature of the XIII cent. *Herrade, the three persons are depicted under the humanform, and equal as far as was possible.Yet those persons,

• Chronique d'Isidore de Seville, MS. de la Bibl. Roy., 7135. The third head is not seen, because in plan the three heads would form a trefoil, and the

CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 45although sitting on one same throne-although supportingone single scroll, and all of the same age, are, nevertheless,very distinctly three bodies; they are drawn closely together,but still they are not in contact. Now, after the thirteenthcentury, not only do the divine figures touch, but theyactually cohere. The three bodies form now one only,with three heads, which latter in their turn are completely welded together.In anthropomorphic representations, one passes, so tospeak, from similarity to identity. In geometrical figures,on the contrary, more distinction begins to be made betweenthe three persons than in the preceding period. * Thetriangle, in fact, gives under a form the most compact, andwith as little distinction as possible, the triplicity resolvingitself into unity. The thirteenth century adds a newgeometrical type, in which the triplicity is more visibleand the unity less absolute. The circle is considered asemblematic of God, and three circles figure the threepersons; but in order to mark the indissoluble union inwhich those three persons are linked together, the threecircles are intertwined, one within the other, in such amanner that one could not be severed or removed withoutthird is consequently concealed by the two which are visible. If the manu- script from which the above design is taken be Spanish, like the text which it contains, mediæval art in Spain, it must be confessed , appears widely different from ours; it is far more original, or perhaps we should rather say abnormal.In a Spanish manuscript in the Bibliothèque d'Amiens, several singular par- ticularities unknown amongst ourselves, are also to be found.

• After the eighth century, when it was desired to show the equality of the

Divine persons, examples were taken which proved too much, the effect was anear approach to absolute identity. St. Odile, Abbess of the Convent ofHohenburg, in Alsace, which is known in the present day by the name of St. Odile, planted three linden trees in honour of the Trinity. The relation of this circ*mstance is curious enough to be worth transcribing. A man oncecame to seek the saint, and presented her with three branches, taken from one single linden tree; he desired her to plant them, that they might remain there in memory of her. "Et tulit (S. Odilia) unam in manu sua, et ait; ' Innomine Patris te planto. ' Et accipiens alteram, dixit: Et in nomine Filii. 'Et tertiam tulit dicens: Et in nomine Spiritus Sancti;' mysterium Trinitatis complens." The three branches took root, and became three large trees exactly alike, equal, and almost identical, beneath the shade of which the nunsenjoyed the air in summer.-See, in the Act. SS. Ord. de S. Benedict,vol. iv. , " La Vie de Saint Odile," by an anonymous writer, apparently ofabout the eleventh century. Odile died about 720.46 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.at the same time severing all the three. The word Trinity,by a singular coincidence, may itself be divided into threesyllables. One of each of these syllables is placed in eachcircle, but they have no perfect meaning, and will not formany word unless united. TRI- NI-TAS. In the space leftvacant in the centre by the intersection of the three circles,we read the word UNITAS. Thus, then, Unity is thecentre from which radiates the Trinity.trinibnitastasPDFig. 139. THE TRINITY UNDER THE FORM OF THREE CIRCLES.From a French Miniature ofthe close of the XIII cent.*In the same manuscript there are, besides the precedingthree, other groups of three circles. One ofthese groupshas the following words distributed equally throughout eachof the three circles:-PATER-FILIUS- SPIRITUSSANCTUS, all of which resolve themselves in the centreinto VITA DEUS. In the second is VERBUM, LUX,

• Manuscript de la Bibl. Communale de Chartres, No. 1355, end of the thirteenth century.

CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 47VITA, terminating in the centre in DEUS- EST. * In thethird is , TRI-TRI, NI-NI, TAS-TATE; and in the centre,UNITATE-UNITAS. The Unity diverges into Trinity,the Trinity converges into Unity. Lastly, in the gloss weread, " Verbum, lux, vita Deus est,"-"Verbum, lux, vitaJesus-Christus est, "-" Verbum, lux, vita Spiritus- Sanctusest." Invert these three terms and displace the attributes,and the following dogma will be found to be the result."Deus trinus unus." These figures, then, are merely theinterpretation in a geometrical form of the Creed ofSt. Athanasius.""It might be expected of the subtle genius of Dante, thathe would readily adopt such a geometrical formula. Thatgreat poet, in fact, closes the " Paradise " with the followingstrophes, in which the idea of both the Trinity and Unityis embodied in magnificent language."Nella profonda e chiara sussistenza,Dell' alto lume parvemi tre giri,Di tre colori e d'una contenenza;E l' un dall'altro, come Iri da Iri,†Parea riflesso; e'l terzo parea fuoco, +Che quinci e quindi igualmente si spiri.

O luce eterna che sola in te sidi,Sola t'intendi, e da te intelletta Ed intendente te ami ed arridi!Quella circulazion che sì concetta Pareva in te, come lume reflesso,Dagli occhi miei alquanto circonspetta,Dentro da se del suo colore istessoMi parve pinta della nostra effige; §Perche il mio viso in lei tutto era messo."" In this group 66 Verbum occupies the place which in the preceding isfilled by the word " Pater; " " Filius " answers to " Lux," and " Spiritus Sanctus " to " Vita." Can this arrangement have been intentional? Itseems scarcely possible to suppose so, for although the Son may be calledLight, and the Holy Ghost Life, still the Father, most certainly, is notspecially the Word. By attributing, on the other hand, the Word to the Son,Light to the Holy Ghost, and Life to the Father, the definition already given ofthe Divine persons is almost strictly adhered to.The Son by the Father; Lumen de lumine.The Holy Ghost: Qui ex Patre Filioque procedit.§ The effigy of Jesus Christ. The Italian Poet has imagined a portrait in48 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Qual è 'l geometra che tutto s' affige Per misurar lo cerchio, e non ritruovaPensando, quel principio ond' egli indige;Tale era io a quella vista nuova:Veder voleva come si convenneL' imago al cerchio, e come vi s' indova;Ma non eran da ciò le proprie penne:Se non che la mia mente fu percossaDa un fulgore in che sua voglia venne. *Paradiso, Canto xxxiii. , 1. 115.It has been frequently repeated that the genius of Dantewas reproduced in the creations of Michelangelo. Thepainting of the Last Judgment, has with justice been regarded as an interpretation into line and colour of thegloomy and glorious poem written and sung by Dante. Tous those illustrious Florentines appear like twin brothersin genius. The traits of similarity which mark them asbelonging to one family have frequently been noticed, butone circ*mstance, elevating that similarity to the highestthe space, where the scholastic author of Chartres had written a word. Theidea is analogous, but conveyed in two different languages.

• In that abyss

Of radiance, clear and lofty, seem'd, methought,Three orbs of triple hue, clipt in one bound;And, from another, one reflected seem'd,As rainbow is from rainbow; and the thirdSeem'd

fire, breathed equally from both.

O eternal light!

Sole in thyself thou dwell'st; and of thyselfSole understood, past, present, or to come;Thou smiledst, on that circling, which in thee Seem'd as reflected splendour, while I mused;For I therein, methought, in its own hue Beheld our image painted; stedfastly I therefore pored upon the view. As oneWho, versed in geometric lore, would fain Measure the circle; and, though pondering long And deeply, that beginning, which he needs,Finds not; e'en such was I, intent to scan The novel wonder, and trace out the form,How to the circle fitted , and therein How placed; but the flight was not for my wing;Had not a flash darted athwart my mind,And, in the spleen, unfolded what it sought.Cary's Dante, Paradise, Canto xxxiii . , 1. 136 .CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 49degree possible, has been completely overlooked, or rather,the fact has been observed, but not understood. Vasari,who lived on familiar terms with Michelangelo, was himselfdeceived; in fact, in his life of that sublime artist he writesthus: " Michelangelo, during the greater portion of hislife, made use of a seal, bearing the emblem of three intertwined circles. He undoubtedly intended thereby to signify,that the union between painting, sculpture, and architecture,was so close and intimate, that the three ought never to bedivided. The academicians, judging him to have attainedthe highest rank in each of the three arts of design, changedthe three circles into three crowns, and added to them thefollowing legend: " TERGEMINIS TOLLIT HONORIBUS. ' " +

I cannot subscribe to the opinion expressed by Vasari.It seems, in the first place, difficult to believe that Michelangelo indulged in the childish pride of carrying about withhim a symbol of his excellence in the three arts of design;and, in the next, by comparing the above extract fromVasari with the language of Dante and the three circles ofour own sculptor at Chartres, it is at once evident that thepretended seal, instead of being a monument of pride, was asymbol of faith. It was a ring, on which the creed ofSt. Athanasius had been traced with the compasses; ageometrical creed, in short. Both Vasari, and the Florentineacademicians may have been alike deceived, but it is certainthat the idea of the taciturn and impenetrable artist sprangfrom a source more elevated than, and very different from,that accorded to it by his countrymen and cotemporaries.Besides the seal just mentioned, Michelangelo had another;that famous engraved stone, a precious monument of antiquity, on which, in a very narrow field, were graven fifteenhuman figures, two animals, and a tree, surrounded by a vine and a curtain.The three circles, an extension, and the complement ofthe triangle, were invented in the thirteenth century, and continued down to the sixteenth. During the period whichcommenced at the close of the fifteenth century and lasted

• Those of Florence, at the time of the pompous ceremony of Michelangelo's funeral.

+ Vasari, " Life of Michelangelo." " Lives of the Painters," translated by Mrs. Foster. -Bohn's Standard Library.VOL. II. E50 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.till the seventeenth, embracing the whole era of the Rénaissance, nearly every type of anterior date was admitted toequality of rank, and treated with the same respect: it wasan epoch of universal syncretism. Men were Pagans andChristians in the same degree, -monarchical and republicanwith equal intensity. In the plastic art, as well as inpolitical and religious belief, everything that presenteditself was accepted and received.The Renaissance added some few novelties to the past,but its grand feature was, that it granted the rights ofcitizenship to everything that had been imagined or performed since the first creation of the world. * We findconsequently in monuments of that period, instances of allthe different types of the Trinity that have been mentioned.The Latin, Romanesque, and Gothic periods were eager tooffer the types which they had created and modified, and theRénaissance accepted all. The symbols invented in theearliest period, the hand of the Father, the cross of theSon, and the dove of the Holy Ghost, descended to theRénaissance, but with additional details that had developedthemselves between the ninth and twelfth centuries.Father displays the head, the bust, or the entire body;the cross bears the crucified Saviour, and the dove is seenalighting on the head or hand of the Holy Ghost, whom itis employed to symbolise. This last addition belongs especially to the Renaissance, while the others may be referredto the two preceding periods. It is, however, very rarelythat the Holy Ghost is represented at the same time underthe human form, and that of a dove; nothing is so unusualas to see on the same monument the third person of theTrinity combine in himself the double symbol of man andThe

• The genius ofthe Renaissance may be said to have drawn inspiration from that of the Romans, whose civilisation it sought to revive. The Roman

Emperors, in their universal toleration to all religious sects, granted the rights of citizenship to deities of every nation, and it is well known that the Emperor Alexander Severus kept in his Lararium images of Christ, of Apollonius ofTyana, of Orpheus, and of Abraham, side by side with those of the best heathen princes, and most celebrated philosophers. To all these personages,who doubtless marvelled to find themselves thus assembled, Severus paid religious homage. The Renaissance likewise treated with equal honour ideas the most discordant, and individuals the most dissimilar, and even the most at variance.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 51dove. We are at present aware of three examples only, twoof which have been given in this work. *Fig. 140.-THE DIVINE TRIPLICITY, CONTAINED WITHIN THE UNITY.From a German Engraving of the xvi cent.tFigs. 126 and 150. The third example was mentioned to me by M. Dusevel d'Amiens. In it the three Divine persons are represented in human form, each holding on his knees his symbolic attribute . The Father with atriangle, the Son with a cross, the Holy Ghost with a dove. This singular subject is painted in a manuscript ofthe fifteenth century, nowin the possession of M. Dusevel. I should have made an engraving of this design had I been earlier aware of its existence.The above design is copied from an engraving belonging to the close of the E 252 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Just as to the dove of the Latin epoch, a man is annexed bythe Romanesque school to complete the figure of the HolyGhost; so also, in representing the entire Trinity, theRomanesque triangle is added to the Gothic circle, of whichwe have already spoken. These two geometrical figures areentwined one within the other, and the most completeformula imaginable, of the unity of substance circ*mscribingthe triplicity of persons, is thus obtained. Further still, asif that figure did not give a sufficiently palpable idea of thedivinity, it is placed in the hand of God himself. That agedman, measuring with his arms as with the branches of acompass, the diameter of the eternal circle, the area of thatDivine unity in which the triangle of the three persons isinscribed, may be regarded in some sort, as the living interpretation of that geometrical abstraction. *As to those Trinities in which all three of the Divinepersons have the human form, a type which first appeared inthe ninth century, and continued in use down to the closeof the thirteenth, during the Romanesque period; its complete development is more particularly to be remarked inthe fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.66Several examples have been already given, to which the reader is referred, and others will yet be added. TheChronique d' Isidore de Seville, " has furnished us with ananthropomorphic Trinity, representing the heads of theDivine persons, animating one single body; but those headsare distinct, although blended together.In the following example, onthe contrary, the heads are insomething more than a mere juxta-position, or even adherent,or welded together; they are commingled, and so intimately blended, as to present one single skull only, with three faces.sixteenth century, designed and engraved by Matheus Gruter; it belongs to M. Guénebault, who pressingly invited me to make use of it. (See thework of Gruter in the Bibl. Roy. in the Cabinet des Estampes. ) The reader will remark the nimbus, its circumference radiating with teeth like those of asaw, which encircles the head of God, and the similar form of the aureolesurrounding a portion of His body.

• There is more of true dignity in figuring God the Father thus measuring the world, than as holding in his hand a pair of compasses, as in Fig. 149.

The Renaissance, whatever may be said of it, infused into ideas and the modeof expressing them, a degree of nobleness rarely seen, especially in France during the middle ages.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 53Here the representation of the Trinity is as completeas possible. Besides the triple visage which supplies an Sant rehanpatersamteftlucnoneft皮noneft312eneftCpūsfetusSamtmathvenfiliusnoneftmanc SamtFig. 141.-THE THREE FACES OF THE TRINITY, ON ONE SINGLE HEAD, AND ON ONE SINGLE BODY.A French Example of the XVI cent.*explication of the triangle cut off at the corners bythe threecircles symbolising the three Divine persons, a legend isappended, which serves for a gloss, and interprets at the sameThe above representation may be seen in a volume of the Hours,printed on vellum at Paris, in 1524, by Simon Vostre. It is besides, very54 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.time, both the difference and the equality of the three hypostases . The difference is read on the sides of the triangle,and the equality converges towards the centre, and meets ina circle resembling those in the corners. Upon the sides is written-"The Father is not the Son. The Father isnot the Holy Ghost. The Holy Ghost is not the Son." Butgoing from the corners towards the centre, we read- "TheFather is God. The Son is God. The Holy Ghost is God."This singular subject is transitionary, leading from purelygeometrical images, to those which are human or anthropomorphic.The Romanesque period first conceived this manner ofrepresenting the three persons under the human form, theFather as well as the Son, the Holy Ghost as well as the other two.The manuscript of St. Dunstan has been already quoted,and one miniature has been given from the manuscript ofHerrade; but we should add that the three persons wereregarded in this light by the philosopher Abelard, who hadall the three sculptured in human form, in the Abbey of the Paraclete. "It deserves remark, " says Father_Mabillon,"that Abelard had the three persons of the Trinity, towhom the Oratory in that place (the Paraclete) was dedicommonly seen after the commencement of the fifteenth century. It may be found sculptured at Bordeaux, on a house said to have been inhabited by Montaigne, in the " Rue des Bahutiers." This carving occupies the exterior tympanum of the entrance door. The triangle and inscription are still discernible, but the three faces and the four attributes of the Evangelists are no longer in existence. The drawing given above is the most complete of that kind. Mr. Albert Way, director of the Antiquarian Society of London andcorrespondent of the " Comité des Arts et Monuments," informs me, that in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, Geometrical Trinities resembling that at Bordeaux, are constantly to be met with. These representations are to be found on church portals, on funeral slabs , sometimes on painted windows. They are all the work of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and are traced upon escutcheons in the manner of armorial bearings. We are assured that they occur in the eastern part of England alone, and have never been seen either in the north or the west. This observation may be important, not only in itsbearing on archæology, but with regard also to history. Though frequent with us, it is uncommon in England, and found only in the counties nearest France, and which were the first to be occupied by the Normans. [ The same triangle and cross- legends may be found in the arms of the monastery of the Holy Trinity, or Christchurch, Aldgate. See Tanner's Notitia Monastica,p. 46, fig. ci. , and also in the centre of the large painted window of the north transept of Canterbury Cathedral . ] —ED.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 55cated, sculptured on a single stone. They are of humanform and stature, an unusual mode of representation , andwell worthy of a man who was original in everything. " *The Father was in the centre, the Son on the right hand,the Holy Ghost on the left, holding his hands crossed upon his breast.It was daring to represent as a man the Almighty Father,who had never been seen by man; but there seemed anexcess of audacity in figuring as a man, and a man withoutwings, the Holy Ghost, who had never been seen except inthe form of a dove. Consequently in the Gothic periodproperly so called, that which lasted from the close of thetwelfth century to the end ofthe fourteenth, the type inventedby Romanesque artists, was almost entirely abandoned; butat the time of the Gothic decline, at the dawn and throughoutthe entire duration of the Rénaissance, the same method oftreating the hypostases was again resorted to.With the exception of the miniature borrowed from themanuscript of Herrade, the drawings already given andthose which we are about to give, are all of the fifteenthand sixteenth centuries; and it is a singular circ*mstancethat even the Trinity sculptured by order of Abelard, asdescribed by Mabillon, belongs to the sixteenth and not tothe twelfth. It is possible that the group of which Mabillonspeaks, may have been substituted in the place of one more ancient, and more or less resembling that which the learned Benedictine may have seen; but the monument he describescannot have been contemporary with Abelard. In fact theFather was in the character of an Emperor, carrying the globe in one (the left) hand and having on his head a closed crown. He was clad in an alb, with a stole crossed uponthe breast and confined by a girdle, and with a copeextending to the other two persons, whom it was intendedto cover, thus typifying the Divine Unity. From the clasp(agrafe) of the mantle depended a scroll, on which was

• Annales Benedict. , vol. vi. , p . 85, No. 14. Mabillon is mistaken; this manner of figuring the Trinity was not unusual, since, from the ninth century upwards, the divine persons are constantly thus represented on monu- ments; and in innumerable monuments of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the same type is preserved. We shall return immediately to the writings of the illustrious Benedictine.

56 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.written "Thou art my Son." The Son was on the righthand of the Father, and wore a similar alb, but had nogirdle . He held in his hand a cross, which he clasped tohis bosom. On the left hung a scroll with the words"Thou art my Father." On the left of the Father was the Holy Ghost, having also a similar alb, his hands crossedupon his breast, and holding the following sentence-" I amthe breath of both." The Son had a crown of thorns; theHoly Ghost a crown of olive. Both were looking towardsthe Father, who alone, of the three, wore shoes. All threehad the same countenance, the same physiognomy, the sameform. * With the exception of the crossed stole, which belongsto the Son, and not to the Father, † all the characteristicshere given pertain to a monument of the sixteenth century,and not of the twelfth. The crown of thorns, in representations of the Trinity, the cross in the hands of the Son,the closed crown worn by the Father, the cope covering allthe three persons at once, and the scroll hanging from it,are none of them earlier than the close of the fifteenthcentury. We have figures of the Trinity, cotemporary withAbelard, and not one among them agrees with the description

• "Videtur hic observare trium sanctissimæ Trinitatis cui dedicatum ejus

loci oratorium est (the Paraclete) , personarum extantes figuras ad humanam staturam, ex uno lapide fabrefactas, quas Abailardus ipse fabricari curavit,insolito, ut in omnibus insolitus erat, modo. Pater in medio positus est cumtoga talari, stola et collo pendente et ad pectus decussata, atque ad cingulum adstricta: cum corona clausa in capite et globo in sinistra manu; pallio super- indutus, quod ad duas hinc inde personas extenditur, cujus a fibula pendet lambus deauratus his verbis adscriptis: Filius meus es tu. Ad patrisdexteram stat Filius cum simili toga, sed absque cingulo, habens in manibus crucem pectori appositam, et ad sinistram partem lambum cum his verbis: Pater meus es tu. Ad sinistram extat Spiritus Sanctus consimili toga indutus decussatus super pectus habens manus cum hoc dicto Ego utriusquespiraculam. Filius coronam spineam, Spiritus Sanctus olearem gerit.Uterque respicit Patrem, qui calceatus est, non duæ aliæ personæ. Eadem in tribus vultus, species et forma. " —Annales Bened. , vol. vi. , p. 85, No. 14.The Son is a priest after the order of Melchisedeck; he is at the sametime pontiff and victim. Hence it comes that he is sometimes representedperforming the office of the Mass, often in bishop's robes, very frequently wearing above the alb a stole, crossed like that worn by priests under the chasuble. It is not thus with the Father. It is quite possible that Mabillon may have assigned to the Father attributes belonging properly to the Son,since he makes an error of four centuries in the date of the monument of which he is speaking.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 57given by Mabillon: we possess, and have given, copies of Trinities of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and thecharacteristics by which they are distinguished range themselves amongst the number of those attributed to the Trinity of Abelard.The anthropomorphic representation ofthe Trinity, appearsthen to have been in high favour at the Rénaissance, and thex +၁

INPRINCIPIO CREAVIT COELVMETTERRAM:Fig. 142. THE THREE DIVINE FACES WITH TWO EYES AND ONE SINGLE BODY.From a French Miniature of the XVI cent.*Manuscript of King Henry II . , Bibl. Roy. The Trinity is here represented engaged in the creation of the world, as related in the Gospel of St. John; the Eagle of the Evangelist is placed upon a scroll-panel, on which is written, " In principio creavit cœlum et terram. " The Eagle, as the attribute of an Apostle,58 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.conclusion of the Gothic period. The type was greatly multiplied and as a necessary consequence, subjected to numerous modifications. To restrict ourselves to those changes affecting the three Divine heads, borne upon one single body, wemay remark, in addition to what has been already said, thatthese heads, which at first were distinct and isolated, thenplaced in contact, then adhering, and next intimately united,ended by being confounded in one single skull.The head then was single, but the three faces were distinct,because it was at least necessary to mark the triplicity ofthe faces. Still, four eyes at first, then three, * then two onlywere inserted in the three faces, and an almost absolute Unitywas at length attained, even while the appearance of theTrinity was still maintained. Three faces, having two eyesonly, one single forehead, and one sole body, give but a very feeble indication of the Trinity.Ere long, artists fell into the monstrous . Allegorists ,it is true, enjoy peculiar license, and they, like poets, arepermitted to indulge in daring metaphors; still a metaphorhas no more real authority in painting or sculpture, than asimple rhetorical figure. Meanwhile audacity knew no limits,andthe more important the subject on which the imaginationhas the nimbus; as symbolising an Evangelist, he bears a writing-horn in his beak. The Eagle is sometimes not content to hold a writing-horn merely,one of the material instruments employed to fix our thoughts. In ancient periods he is shown giving direct inspiration; he even dictates the idea, as do the Angel of St. Matthew, the Lion of St. Mark, and the Ox of St. Luke.But the manuscript here quoted belongs to the sixteenth century, and at that period the attributes of the Evangelists had become mere domestic attendants,and ceased to be regarded as the agents of inspiration.

• It appears that at St. Pol- de- Léon, in Brittany, there was a Trinity sculptured on the key of the vaulting, consisting of three faces, having only three eyes between them. It is easily seen that four, or even two, eyes might

be placed naturally enough on three faces closely joined together; one of which would be seen in full face, while the other two would be in three- quarters only, or in profile; but it is more difficult to distribute three eyes between three faces. To do so it would be necessary, instead of exhibitingthose faces vertically, or in their natural elevation, to place them horizontally,or "en plan." This is exactly what has been done at St. Pol-de- Léon. It should be observed that the three eyes, mouths, and noses, sculptured on thetrefoil shaped boss which hangs from the vaulting of the Church of St. Pol,do indeed designate a triplicity, but the idea of God perhaps has little part in it. It was probably a mere caprice of the artist's fancy, who wished to unitethree objects of any like kind in one single area.CHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 59exercised itself, the more serious the consequences whichit involved.St. Christopher carried the infant Saviour on his shoulderacross a tempestuous arm of the sea, and it was Christ thesecond person of the Trinity, and not the Trinity itself,that the saint bore. But a piece of sculpture, executedin the fifteenth century, is still to be seen in the church of Sedgeford, in England, in which a gigantic St. Christopheris bearing the little Jesus, a child of three years of age,upon his shoulders: yet this child is not Jesus only; Heis the impersonation of the Trinity, for three heads areseen on that one little body. Thus we have one instanceof Christ in his own person comprehending the entireTrinity. *The same idea has been carried still farther. The secondperson ofthe Trinity, the Son of God, descended alone intothe bosom of Mary; neither the Father, nor the HolyGhost, ever became incarnate in the womb of the Virgin.Yet in a certain manuscript of the end of the fourteenth century, there is a prayer addressed to the Virgin,the written character of which appears to belong to the

• I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Wright, an English antiquarian, who is also a correspondent of the Institute of France, and of the "Comité des Arts et des Monuments, " for the communication of a very

correct drawing of the St. Christopher above described , bearing on his shoulders the infant Jesus with three heads. One of the heads only has a nimbus; the other two are destitute of that distinctive ornament. It must be added, thatthese heads, having been covered with whitewash which has recently been removed, are at present somewhat indistinct. M. le Baron Taylor, to whomthe drawing was communicated, believes, and with reason, that two of thethree heads were probably abortive attempts of the painter. The artist may have made two or three different attempts to place a head on the body of the infant he had just drawn, and was not satisfied until the third attempt; hence the three heads. The above explanation seems plausible, and we willinglyadopt it. Still it must be observed, that the definitive head, that wearing the nimbus, is even more indistinct than the others; in them the eyes and mouth,which in the first are not perceptible, are distinctly traced. Besides, the fact thus presented to us in the painting at Sedgeford, although irregular, is not unique, and we have a host of examples proving that Christ has been figured,absorbing in himself the three Divine persons. The most ancient St. Christopher in my recollection , is on a painted window in the south transept of the Cathedral of Strasbourg. It is Byzantine in design, and must date from the eleventh century. However, the little figure of Christ that he bears has but one single head.60 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.fifteenth. In that prayer, which is rather remarkable, the following passage may be found. "Si vous souveigne,doulce dame, de la doulce annunciacion que le Sauveur detout le monde vous envoya quand il se voulut tant humilierque il voulut en vous descendre et en vos précieulx flansprendre cher humaine pour nous povres pécheurs rachepter.Vuelliés ouvrir les oreilles de vostre très-grant doulceur àescouter les prières de moy povre pécheresse, quant pour lespécheurs se voust en vous herbergier le Père, le Filz et leSeint-Esperit. Pour quoy, doulce dame, à vous appartientestre advocate aux povres pécheurs, et par quoy vous estes la chambre de toute la Trinité. " *Thus then, as early as the close of the fourteenth century,or about the commencement of the fifteenth, the womb ofMary had been called the chamber of the whole Trinity,and the Chancellor Gerson, was unable to restrain hisindignation at seeing in the church of the Carmelites, atParis, a picture, in which the text of Troyes written.one hundred years later, was pictorially represented. " Onse doit bien garder " cried Gerson, " de paindre faulsem*nt une histoire de la saincte Escripture, tant que bonnement se peut faire. Je le dy partie pour une ymage qui estaux Carmes et semblables, qui ont dedens leur ventre uneTrinité, aussi comme toutte la Trinité, eust prins charhumaine en la vierge Marie. Et, qui plus merveille est, ily a enfer dedens peint, et ne voy point pour quelle cause onœuvre ainsi; car, en monjugement, il n'y a baulté ne dévocionen telles paintures; et ce doit estre cause d'erreur et deindignation ou indévocion. " +"So remember, sweet lady, the sweet annunciation that the Saviour of all the world sent you, when he was pleased to humble himself so much as to descend into you, and in your sacred body to take upon himself human flesh,to redeem , us poor sinners . Deign to open the ears of your great goodness, tohear the prayers offered by me, a poor sinner, inasmuch as for us sinners, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost were pleased to take up their abode in Wherefore, sweet Lady, to you it belongs to be the advocate of poor sinners,and for that purpose you became the chamber of the Holy Trinity." This manuscript was communicated to M. Leon Aubineau, " Archiviste at Tours,and correspondent of the " Comité des Arts," by M. l'Abbé Tridon, Professor of Archæology in the little seminary at Troyes.99you."We must guard as honestly as we can," exclaims Gerson, " against depicting falsely any story from the Holy Scriptures. I say this on account of a painting in the Carmelites, and others resembling it, which have within theCHRONOLOGICAL ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TRINITY. 61The cry of alarm, uttered with good reason by Gerson was echoed at Rome. There was indeed an impropriety, inexhibiting the Divine persons as enclosed within the wombof the Virgin, and to place Hell there also, was more unheardof still . It was a heresy to make the Trinity incarnate; * itwas audacious to depict the three hypostases fused andcommingled in so monstrous a manner. Pope Urban VIII. ,on the 11th of August, 1628, prohibited representations ofthe Trinity under the figure of a man with three mouths,three noses, and four eyes; he proscribed also some other similar images. Disobedience to this command was threatened with the pope's anathema, and it was commanded thatall Trinities of that description should be burned. †womb a Trinity, as if the entire Trinity had been clothed with human flesh in the body of the Virgin Mary. And what is yet more surprising, Hell itself also is therein painted, and I see no reason why men should thus work;for, in my opinion, there is neither beauty nor devotion in such pictures, and they are likely rather to cause error and indignation, or a lack of devotion. "Bibl. Roy., MS, 7282, fol, 60. I am indebted to M. B. Thomassy for the above extract, which is curious in several points, and which was found in asermon preached on Christmas Day by the Chancellor Gerson. We haveindeed seen pictures representing Jesus in the womb of Mary, and St. John in that of Elizabeth; we have even given (Fig. 71) the copy of a paintedwindow in which Jesus is represented naked, erect, and with joined hands, in the bosom of his mother. But the pictures described by Gerson, and whichseem like reminiscences of the manuscript of Troyes, are at present unknown;it is probable that they have been destroyed. If found again, it would be proper to describe and carefully preserve them.

• In the present day men are equally heretical, although perhaps uncon- sciously and unintentionally so, when they place the triangle, the symbol of the Trinity, on the back of the modern chasuble, at the intersection of the arms of the cross; thereby indeed making it appear as if the entire Trinity had become incarnate and been crucified, when in truth Christ alone became man, and died upon the cross. Such chasubles, numbers of which may be

seen, ought not to be worn in the sacred services, and yet they are advertised daily, and drawings of them are given in religious journals, and the clergy,who ought to be more scrupulous in regard to theological doctrines, daily purchase and wear them. The Reverend Father Dom Guéranger, who drewmy attention to this involuntary error, deplored, and with just reason, that the designing of sacerdotal ornaments should be entrusted to ignorant or indifferent persons, and that the clergy should adopt without consideration whatever isoffered them. It certainly seems an extraordinary thing, for a priest performing the ceremony of the Mass, to wear upon his back a flagrant heresy.Lucius Ferraris (Prompta Bibliotheca Canonica, in 4º, Rome, 1787)says, at the word " Imagines ": " Urbanus VIII. comburi jussit imaginem cum tribus buccis, tribus nasis et quatuor oculis, et alias si quæ invenirentur similes.62 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Benedict XIV. , in a letter addressed in 1745 to theBishop of Augsburg, repeats and confirms the condemnationpromulgated by his predecessor. *The Greeks, although of lively imagination, and stronglyinclined to the living metaphor and personifications, havenever more than once ventured, to our knowledge, to depictthe Trinity as we have done. They adhered more closelyto the Holy Scriptures, and did not permit themselves towander into errors, such as we are sometimes betrayed into,when our reason is abandoned to the guidance of the imagi- nation. The Trinity, having three human faces on onesingle body, is painted in fresco in the chapel of the cemetery of St. Gregory, in the convent of Mount Athos. Thepainting, however, was made in 1736; the three Divinefaces have four eyes, three noses, three mouths, and onesingle nimbus: this last is cruciform, and bears engravenon the branches of the cross, the words " óv.' Onesingle example, belonging too to the eighteenth century, is of little moment. The Byzantine Manuscript so oftenquoted, and which is entitled " The Guide for Painting,"prescribes the proper method both of representing Trinities,and each of the three Divine persons separately; it makesno allusion whatever to three heads or three faces upon onesingle body, but observes merely that, " Christ is representedin paintings under the human form, because he appearedupon earth, and conversed with men, being made in everything a mortal like ourselves, except in respect of sin. Soalso God the Father Eternal is figured as an aged man,because he so appeared to Daniel (Chap. vii. ) . The HolyGhost is depicted as a dove, because he was seen under thatform at the baptism of Christ in the Jordan. " It mustbe acknowledged that the Greeks have carefully avoided theboldness and temerity into which the Latins have beenbetrayed.Hæc enim nova inventio (new in Italy, but in France already old) repræsen- tandi sanctissimam Trinitatem tolerabilis non videtur. "

• See the Bull of Benedict XIV. t. i . , p. 166, § 28.

THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 63THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY.Some artists when they painted or sculptured the Trinity,preferred to represent the equality of the persons; and others,the distinction between them; and we thence obtain twodifferent series, in groups of that description.Whenit was the artist's intention to exhibit the Equality,or Divine Unity, the three persons were made as littledistinguishable, the one from the other, as possible. Theserepresentations are marked by a total absence of character,or at least by the small number of attributes. The Trinityin the manuscript of Henry II., given above, (Fig. 142), ismerely a figure supporting the sky.If the figures be distinct, as they have been seen inthe manuscript of Herrade (Fig. 137) , their equality isstill preserved, and all the three are very frequently coveredwith one single mantle, to figure the unity in which they are bound one with the other. This plan was that adoptedby Abelard, according to Mabillon; nothing is more common in the figured monuments, sculpture, paintings, and miniatures of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. *A diversity sometimes betrays itself by trifling characteristics, even in groups the intention of which is to throwout the unity in bold relief; the Holy Ghost is madeyounger, the Father more aged, and the Son of middle age;a book is given to the Holy Ghost, a cross to the Son, anda globe to the Father. Either the Papal or Imperial crownmarks the Father, and a crown of thorns the Son, while theabsence of either marks the Holy Ghost.Between the two extreme points of an almost completeunity, and a nearly absolute diversity, some Trinities areseen in which the balance between the equality and individualdistinction of the persons, is very well preserved.In the following engraving the Father and Son are extremely alike. The same nimbus, the same tiara, and a similarstyle of hair; the same kind of alb, and one single mantleconnecting the two Divine Persons: they are united by one

• Refer to Figs. 123 and 126, pp. 471 and 494, vol. i.

64 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.book, which they mutually support, and also by the HolyGhost, linking them one with the other by the tips of his extended wings.DAVL DVRANDFig. 143. THE DIVINE PERSONS DISTINCT.A French Miniature of the XVI cent. *

• The above drawing is taken from the celebrated Cité de Dieu, a magnificent folio manuscript of the sixteenth century, in the Bibliothèque de Saint Geneviève; it will be found at folio 406. The nimbi are radiating, not

cruciform. It belongs to an epoch when the cross of the divine nimbus and the nimbus itself had no longer any great value.THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 65But here begins the difference . The Holy Ghost is nota man, like the other two persons, but a dove. The Father,too, is more aged than the Son; the beard of the first isforked, of the second round. The Father, not the Son, bearsthe globe of the world; the alb worn by the Father has nogirdle, it is a robe. The Son, who is a priest, has an albtightened by a girdle, and confined by a stole, which is crossed upon his breast.In those Trinities, in which the distinction between thepersons is made to predominate, distinctive characteristicsabound. The most remarkable diversity possible is givenby those Trinities of the Latin period, in which the Fatheris shown only by the hand or the bust, the Son by a crossor as a lamb, and the Holy Ghost by a dove. But betweenthese types and others that tend towards the equality of theDivine persons, there are a thousand varieties, too many toparticularise. It is, in fact, easy to arrive at the same ideaswhen the object aimed at, a representation of unity, is the same; but when distinction is to be marked, as many differenttypes appear to have been invented as there have beenrepresentations executed.It would be superfluous at this moment to enumerate theattributes which distinguish each of the three Divinepersons, as they have been already fully detailed in precedingchapters devoted to the consideration of each of the Divinepersons. It now therefore only remains to consider theattributes characterising the three Divine persons grouped,that is to say, the Unity into which their diversity resolvesitself, or, in other words, the distinction between thehypostases converging into Divine equality, or substantialunity. The mode of grouping becomes, therefore, a pointof some importance to establish, as the tendency whichmanifests itself more and more, to unite the three personstogether, is there traceable.The three persons were at first set apart at certaindistances, isolated, as it were; they occupy the same tableau,but the group is distributed over the entire vaulting of anapse. We thus find them in early Latin mosaics, and ancient frescos. *

• See Ciampini, Vetera Monimenta. That learned antiquary gives several engravings of these mosaics. See also Bosio, Roma Sotteranea, who has VOL. II. F.

66 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.During this first period, it is not so much the group ofthe Trinity that is depicted, as the casual meeting of the three persons.The tendency towards a closer approximation is apparentabout the ninth century. In the manuscript of St. Dunstanthe three persons are in proximity. In the manuscript ofHerrade, they are sitting on the same bench; they touchsimultaneously the same scroll, which serves in some degreeto unite them, though they are still at some distance from each other.But in the twelfth century, the Father holds the cross towhich the Son is attached, and the Holy Ghost hovers above them or descends like a breath from the mouth of theFather, and alights upon the head of the Son. The groupis here perfectly defined. In the thirteenth and fourteenthcenturies, an aureole frequently enframes the three persons;thus uniting them more closely still. The aureole followsthe phases indicated in the chapter specially devoted to it,and which immediately succeeds that relating to the nimbus:it is either circular, oval, triangular, almond- shaped, in trefoilor quatrefoil. In that aureole the three persons are united,but not yet placed in juxta-position.

This juxta-position does not appear until the fourteenthcentury. In the celebrated manuscript of the Duke ofAnjou, the Divine persons are all three represented underthe human form, but one behind the other, and only aboutto touch. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, they areactually in contact. The art was advancing by degrees, I donot say precisely to giving an absolute identity to all theDivine persons, but towards a similitude closely allied toidentity; an aggregation very much resembling fusion; aTrinity, tending directly to Unity.tgiven engravings of the ancient fresco paintings in the Catacombs. Themosaic decorating the apse in the Church of San Giovanni in Laterano, althoughexecuted between the years 1288 and 1294, contains a picture of the Trinity,in which the three symbols are still placed at a distance apart; but this is at Rome, where Christian Art long remained stationary. Even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, during the period of the greatest activity in Gothicart, Roman art always sought for inspiration, in the Catacombs, and the ancient basilicas of the age of Constantine.Bibl. Roy. , manuscript already quoted. Lavall, 127.It must then be observed, in completion of the indications and examplesTHE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 67After the close of the fifteenth century the union becamestill more complete. An attempt is made to absolutely identify in one the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. They are atfirst connected only by the feet, so that with three headsand three bodies, they have two feet only. The connectionor fusion next rises higher, and the three bodies are consoli- dated into one. Like a tree with three trunks springingfrom the same root, which enlarge day by day, and at lastare united, interpenetrated, and absorbed one into the other,thus forming but one single stem, so the bodies of the three Divine Persons are likewise commingled. But the heads,as has been shown, remain as yet distinct.A little later than this, in the sixteenth century moreparticularly, the heads themselves became blended one withthe other, and the three faces were surmounted by a single forehead. * Faces, which had at first been seen in full oralready given, that in a manuscript of the Legenda Aurea, of the Bibl. Roy. ,No. 6889, fifteenth century, vol. i . , fol. 107 , there is at the Annunciation apicture of the Trinity, in which the three persons are all of human form; they appear to be three men, of from thirty to thirty- five years of age; all the three are in the Papal costume, and a single cope serves to cover all. The Holy Ghost bears a globe. At the Feast of Pentecost, fol. 158, is another Trinity, also composed of three men covered with one and the same mantle.But, besides this, a second Holy Ghost, under the figure of a dove, detaches itself from the three persons, to descend upon the Apostles. This dovecannot, therefore, be intended either for that Divine person, nor for his symbol,but is rather the symbol and soul of the entire Trinity, the Spirit of God,belonging in common to the three persons. Here too, the Holy Ghost isholding the globe, an attribute more especially appropriate to the Father. The Son, in the habit of a priest, has a stole crossed upon his breast. In vol. ii . ,fol. 156, Jesus Christ may be seen as a Pope, wearing a stole, crossed, butwhich the Father is without. In the MS. suppl. , fol . 631 , Jesus is represented placing a crown on the head of his mother; he is in Papal robes, and holds in his hand the globe of the world: the drawing belongs to the fourteenth century . copy of the Legenda Aurea ( MS. de la Bibl. Roy. , fourteenthcentury, No. 6888) represents Jesus Christ as an emperor, crowning his mother. The Father is simply an old man with a grey beard.

• See a beautiful painted window of the sixteenth century, in the north aisle of the Church of Notre Dame at Châlons- sur- Marne. M. L'Abbé Jourdain,

vicar of the Cathedral of Amiens, found in the possession of a glazier at Amiens,and purchased, a plate of glass bearing date 1520, on which was painted aTrinity of very peculiar character.The heads are united one with theonly, and wear one single crown.side of the head or face on theThere are two heads on one single body.other, and have two noses and two eyesThe third person is a dove, adhering to the right, exactly like an ear. Equality andF 268 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.three-quarters, afterwards became absorbed into the principalface which fills the centre. The manuscript of Henry II.has shown us three faces with one forehead, on one singlebody, so intimately blended that though there are indeedtwo profiles and one face, we can discern, not six nor even four eyes, but only two.Each profile, when looked at separately, has its eye, andthe face itself, which is in the centre, has two; but there isin fact but one head, but one entire face, and with two eyesonly. These three figures, by a freak of pictorial Theology,(i . e., Theology explained through the medium of design, )lend each other reciprocally the face and eye. It may beliterally said of them, changing one word of a well-knowntext of scripture and inserting three in the place of two,"Erunt tres in carne unâ."Thus the different manner in which the Divine personsare grouped may furnish good archæological characteristicsfor classifying such groups in chronological order. Therelative position occupied by these three persons is also deserving of observation. According to our creed,God the Father begot the Son, and the Holy Ghostproceeded from both: it therefore became necessary,inaccordance with hierarchical law, to represent the Son onthe left hand of the Father, and the Holy Ghost betweenthe two. This has been done in respect of the Holy Ghost,who is frequently placed between the other two persons:but in regard to the Son, the place assigned to him by thedogma has been altered by the book of Psalms, in whichDavid says that the Father makes the Son to sit on His right hand instead of on His left. It is in fact on the righthand of the Father that the Son, except in cases of error, isalways placed. But the right hand, and the text (i. e. , thetext of the Psalms, ) is here precise, is that of the Father,not ofthe spectator: it is the left of the person looking atthe picture. The same rule is observed in the treatmentof pictures of the Trinity, as in blazoning, in which the escutcheon of the husband is placed on the right of that ofdistinction appear in this singular example to be blended. The Spirit is distinct from the other two persons, who are positively equal. I sincerelyregret not having had time to get any engraving from this painted glass, of which M. Jourdain much wished to favour me with a sketch.THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 69the wife. The emblazonment is supposed to be facingthe spectator, and preserves its proper right or left, as in thecase with the Trinity: the left and the right emanate fromGod, not from the spectator.Still, whether by mistake, or from having imagined itcorrect to take the spectator's right and left, the Father hasoccasionally been placed on the right hand of the Son,instead of on the left. A most remarkable instance of thisanomaly may be seen over the principal entrance of theSainte Chapelle at Vincennes. The angelic hierarchy isranged, tier above tier, on the voussure, and the Trinitysculptured at the top. The Father, in Papal robes, andgrasping in his hand the ball of the world, is on the right ofDURANDFig. 144. THE HOLY GHOST, DESCENDING FROM THE FATHER UPON THE SON.From a French Miniature, MS. de duc d'Anjou, of the close of the XIII cent.Bibl. Royale.the Son, who carries his cross. The Holy Ghost, in theform of a dove, hovers between them, uniting them one70 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.with the other, by the extremity of the wings. * The sameerror is found in miniatures of manuscripts.PAVLIDVRANDFig. 145.-THE HOLY GHOST PROCEEDING FROM THE FATHER AND THE SON, AND RE- ASCENDING FROM THE SON TO THE FATHER.From a French Miniature, XII cent.t

• On the porch of a church at Etampes, the elect are seen ranged on the left of the Saviour, and the damned upon his right, in a scene representing the Last Judgment. This is contrary to the universal custom, and even to the authority of Scripture, which places the sheep, or the elect, upon the right hand, and the goats, or the damned, upon the left . The sculptor of Etampes,

like him of Vincennes, taking the spectator instead of God for his startingpoint, fixed the right and left by consideration of the person looking at the picture, not of Christ the Judge.This manuscript, now belonging to the municipal library of Troyes, cameTHE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 71The Father, in virtue of hierarchical law, is frequentlyplaced in the centre, the Son on his right hand, and theHoly Ghost on his left. Examples of this arrangement havebeen given in the preceding chapters. (See especially Figs.61, 111, 123, and 126, vol. I.) But when the artist desiresto express the passing of the Holy Ghost from the Fatherto the Son, the Holy Spirit is placed in the centre, the Sonon the right hand, and the Father on the left. Thisobservation applies to Trinities disposed horizontally. Inthose which are in tiers or ranged in vertical order, the Sonis below, the Father above, the Holy Spirit in the centre.The Spirit descends from the mouth of the Father, alightsupon the head of the Son, and proceeds from both as in thepreceding example, Fig. 144.At other times the Holy Ghost, still occupying the centre between the Father and the Son, seems, on the contrary, toascend from the Son to the Father. Instances of thispeculiar arrangement are very rare, and the design opposite,Fig. 145, is copied from a Champenois manuscript, of whichit forms the opening illustration.In other representations the dogma of the Holy Ghost,proceeding from one to the other person, is less distinctlymarked. The Holy Ghost, as in the following example,is in the presence of the Father and the Son, but heno longer unites them, nor does he appear to proceed from them.The Father here holds the cross to which Jesus is attached,as in the two drawings given above; but the position of theHoly Ghost, who is placed upon, and walking on one ofthearms of the cross, does not appear as if intended to signifyoriginally from the Abbey of Notre Dame-aux-Nonnains. It dates from the twelfth century. The design given above was traced in outline from the miniature itself, by M. Ch. Fichot, an artist of Troyes. The aureole sur- rounding the Trinity, which is of oval form, and of vegetable nature, deserves to be noticed. From the four outer ends of the leafy scrolls, issue the attributes of the Evangelists. M. Vallet de Viriville directs attention particularly to the manuscript of Notre Dame-aux-Nonnains. Even as late as the year 1840, the existence of this singular book was scarcely known. It may be remarked, that Jesus Christ is attached to the cross not by three nails, as was usual from the thirteenth century, and as is shown in the preceding drawing, but by four;and it may be likewise worth noting, that the attributes of the Evangelists have a nimbus like the persons symbolised by them.72 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.his proceeding from the Father and the Son . The dove isadded there simply to complete the Trinity. In someother instances a design of not interpreting the doctrine of Procession is even moreevident, the Holy Ghosthaving been suppressed,as in the instances givenabove. (Fig. 63, vol. I.)In the Greek Church,which denies the doctrine of the Procession, *the Holy Ghost is never represented uniting theDivine persons by theextremity of his wings,or descending from theFather upon the Son,or ascending from theSon to the Father. TheGreek Trinities have acertain resemblance toour own, as is evidentfrom that given in the History of the Nimbus(Fig.21, vol. I.); indeed,ingroupsrepresentingtheTrinity, the Greeks may,and in fact do, place the Holy Ghost between theFather and the Son, because, according both to the Greeks and the Latins, thethird person in the Divine Trinity unites the other two; buthe never appears to emanate from either; he never touchesthe mouths of the other two persons with his wings.P.D.Fig. 146. THE HOLY GHOST, NOT PROCEEDING EITHER FROM THE FATHER OR THE SON.From a Woodcut or Engraving of the XII cent.tThe nimbus, the aureole, and the glory characterise

• The Greek Church would anathematise any painter who should venture

to design a Trinity resembling those given in Figs. 6 and 11.The Father is on a throne surmounted by a canopy; he wears theimperial costume. The design is copied from a wood engraving of thetwelfth century, and various examples of a similar treatment of the subjectare to be seen in books of " Hours " belonging to that period.THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 73grouped Trinities, in the same manner as they distinguisheach of the three persons when represented separated orisolated. The reader is therefore referred to the precedingvolume, in which those subjects have been fully treated of.One word only in addition. The triangle being emblematicof the Trinity, the triangular nimbus seems especially tobelong to the three persons grouped together. That formof the nimbus, is however very rare, and the followingexample is one of the most curious that can be offered .DVRANDFig. 147.—THE THREE DIVINE HEADS WITHIN A SINGLE TRIANGLE.From an Italian Wood Engraving of the xv cent.*In this we have one single body with three heads; that inthe centre figures the Father; it is older and larger thanthe others a twofold method of conveying materially the

• The above design, of which mention has been already made, is taken from a copy of Dante printed at Florence in 1491 , and illustrated with engravings.

It is taken from the Paradiso, folio cclxxviii.74 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.idea of the Divine paternity. The head on the true rightof the large head represents the Son; that on the left, which is beardless, younger, and smaller than either of the othertwo, the Holy Ghost. The three heads are encircled by onesingle triangular nimbus. They have but one body, twohands, and two feet: the left hand holds the globe, thesymbol of power; the right hand is in the act of benediction,emblematic of grace or favour. This Trinity radiates withina circular aureole, the circumference of which is occupied byseraphim. We are in Paradise, and that Divine group, thecentre of uncreated light, is placed upon a rainbow.The head of the Trinity is adorned with a tiara, animperial, or a regal crown, but in many instances also it isbare. In this peculiarity there are no characteristics ,except those supplied by the form of the head- dress, whichvaries according to the age and country. The Italian tiara differs from the French. To take one example only: PopeGregory the Great, a statue of whom adorns the northporch of the Cathedral of Chartres,* wears as a tiara aconical cap, ribbed and a tuft at the top .This wasthe French tiara of the thirteenth century.† In Italy,in the fourteenth century, great changes had taken place.The Pope then had a dome- shaped tiara, of elongatedform, oval, and with the lower part ornamented with a crown. ‡The tiara of the present day is almost of the same form, butit is further encircled with two additional crowns.§ When

• It has been given in the chapter on the Holy Ghost, Vol. I., Fig. 114.

M. le Comte de Montalembert (Du Vandalisme et du Catholicismedans l'Art, in 8vo, Paris, 1839 , p. 172) inveighs, and with much reason,against the cap still worn ( 1840) by the clergy in Paris, and whichunfortunately continues in use in many dioceses; but it had not been remembered that that pointed cap was nothing more than the tiara of the thirteenth century, as drawn by the French, and perhaps, also, as it was worn in Italy by the Popes.See the Christ of Orcagna, given, Vol. I. , Fig. 67.§ It is said that the tiara with one crown was in use till 1298, that thetiara with two crowns continued predominant until 1334, and that after that period it had three crowns. Boniface VIII. added the second crown tothe tiara, and Boniface XII.¹ or Urban V. tripled it . Monuments with figures1 Benedict XII. was Pope in 1334, and Urban V. in 1362; there does not appear to have been a Boniface after the ninth ( 1380) of that name. Thismust therefore be an accidental error. -- EDITOR.THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 75119God the Father is in the costume of a Pope, he wearsthe pontifical robes and tiara in use at the period of representation. The most trifling details should be studiedwith attention, for in those details the most irrefragablearchæological characteristics are frequently to be found.The Holy Ghost is usually depicted with the head bare. *Christ, like the Father, takes indifferently the papal,imperial, or more especially the regal crown; but to it isadded the crown of thorns. Frequently also his head is uncovered.WeThe globe of the world, or the volume of the HolyScriptures, are frequently seen in the hands of the Trinity.God, the Trinity, having created the world, the globe,surmounted by a cross, is usually placed in his hands.Numerous instances of this have been given above.†have seen the Trinity modelling and animating man. ‡From the manuscript of Henry II. we have produced adrawing of the Trinity supporting the heavens and theplanets, which have just been created. § The followingdesign presents the same subject, as treated by Buonamico Buffamalco.The beautiful representation annexed, belonging to theearlier part of the fourteenth century, is unquestionablysuperior to that in the manuscript of Henry II. TheTrinity is here concentrated in one single Person, in God,who holds the circles composing the universe, peopled byhimself with beings of every nature. The exterior circlesare animated by the nine choirs of angels, the constellations roll in the intermediate circles, and in the centre isplaced the earth, which was regarded as the heart or kernelof the world. Tare not completely in accordance with historical documents, and the latter, in general, are less to be relied on than monuments.

• The crown of olive mentioned by Mabillon, in his description of the

Trinity said to have been sculptured by command of Abelard, at the Paraclete,we positively reject as of doubtful authenticity.See particularly, Figs. 113, 147 .See Fig. 6.§ See Fig. 142.They will be described in detail in the History of Angels.Instead of sketching out a description, I prefer giving the following extract from Vasari ( Vies des Peintres, " Vie de Buffamalco "); the passage is76 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.A subject closely resembling this, but treated in a veryinferior manner, is to be seen in an illuminated manuBOEGWILLWALDStelleAsiaTica LoteriaStelleFig. 148. THE TRINITY IN ONE GOD, SUPPORTING THE WORLD.Fresco ofthe Campo Santo of Pisa, XIV cent.not devoid of interest in itself: " Buonamico Buffamalco painted four frescoes in the Campo Santo. In these compositions we see represented the creationof the universe, in which the Father Almighty is depicted as five cubits inTHE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 77Itscript. God is the centre of nine concentric circles , sevenof which are of flame: he holds in his right hand thecompasses, with which he measures the extent of the world;and in his left the balance in which it is weighed.answers to the well-known text in the Book of the Wisdomof Solomon, " Omnia in mensurâ, et numero, et ponderedisposuisti " (chap. xi. ) .Number is shown by the nine mystical circles surroundingGod, measure by the compasses, and weight by the balance.For these reasons the globe is constantly placed in thehands of the Trinity, and sometimes also beneath their feet,as in the admirable manuscript of Anne de Bretagne,preserved in the Bibliothèque Royale. At about two-thirdsfrom the commencement of this beautiful book, is a pictureof God the Father, in the habiliments of a Pope, with a longwhite beard, a disk-like nimbus encircling the head, a snowwhite alb, green stole, and a red cope, adorned with orfrayand historiated decorations with figures in gold, and thefeet covered with golden slippers; the three fingers of theright hand are extended, in the act of benediction. On theleft is Jesus Christ, in a brown robe, a red mantle, his headheight, raising the grand machine of the sky and the elements. Below thispicture, two angles of which are occupied by St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, Buonamico wrote in capital letters (Majuscules ) a sonnet explanatory of the subject, which is here inserted, as it will give some idea of the amount of scientific knowledge generally possessed at that period. " Buffamalco died in 1340, aged 68. The following sonnet is that written below his painting:" Voi che avvisate questa dipinturaDi Dio piè, toso sommo creatoreLo qual fe' tutte cose con amore,Pesate, numerate ed in misura." In nove gradi angelica natura In ello empirio ciel pien di splendore Colui che non si muove ed è motore Ciascuna cosa fece buona e pura."Levate gli occhi del vostro intelletto Considerate quanto è ordinato,Lo mondo universale; e con affetto Lodate lui che l' ha si ben creato:Pensate di passare a tal diletto Ira gli angeli, dove è ciascun beato.Per questo mondo si vede la gloria,Lo basso, ed il mezzo, e l ' alto in questa storia ."78 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.bare, and crowned with thorns. He holds in his left handthe Cross of the Resurrection, the triumphal Cross, usuallyborne aloft in processions. His beard is red, and the nimbuswwmWwwwwwwww&एएएएएएएएएए४४४४.४४४४९तरातएएEMM.P.H.DVRAND BFig. 149. THE TRINITY IN ONE SINGLE GOD, HOLDING THE BALANCES AND THE COMPASSES.From an Italian Miniature ofthe XIII cent.*

• The above drawing is taken from the Psalterium cum Figuris, a manu- script of the twelfth century, with Italian miniatures of the twelfth and thirteenth. The miniature from which this drawing is taken appears to be of the latter period.

THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY . 79resembles a disk: there are no wounds in the hands, and onthe feet are shoes like those worn by the Father. The feetof both the Father and the Son rest upon a globe, in theupper part of which shine the sun, the moon, and the stars,while below undulate the waves of the sea, which is ploughedby vessels; in the intermediate space, rise towns surrounded by verdant meadows. Between the heads of the Father andthe Son is the Holy Ghost, as a white dove with a red beakand outstretched wings: he wears a disk-like nimbus.This Holy Trinity is painted on a gold ground, and isenframed in an oval aureole completely bordered withclouds . In the four corners, on the outside of this luminousaureole, are the four evangelical attributes turning towardsthe Trinity, and each holding a scroll, on which is written,"Mattheus hom*o, Johannes avis, Marcus leo, Lucasvitulus." The symbols of the Evangelists are of azure,slashed with gold: all are winged, but without any nimbus.The Father and the Son support between them a large openbook, on which is written-"Ego sum alpha et O. principium et finis. "In fact, next to the globe, the attribute most constantlyseen in the hands of the Trinity, is the book of life, theBible. The drawing copied from the " Cité de Dieu "(Fig. 143) has furnished an example of this description.On that book, in addition to the preceding inscription,which is that most commonly seen, are others of analogoussignification. " Ego sum qui sum,' "Rex regum,'66 "" ""

• In another manuscript in the Bibliothèque Royale (No. 886) also cotemporaneous with Anne de Bretagne, there is a Trinity resembling that described above. It is at about the middle of the manuscript; the Trinity is

in an aureole of gold circ*mscribed by a circlet of blue clouds. The Father is represented as a Pope, with white hair and beard, and about sixty or seventy years ofa*ge, the " Ancient of Days. " The Son, on his right hand, is in a violet- coloured robe with a reddish cope, his head uncovered, but crowned with thorns. Upon his feet are shoes resembling those worn by the Father, redslippers with golden ligatures; he is about thirty or thirty-five years of age.Between these two figures, and about on a level with their foreheads, is the Holy Ghost, in the form of a snow- white dove with wings outspread. TheFather and Son hold between them an open book, on which is written:"Sancta Trinitas, Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus. Ego sum alpha et O. "The book has seven golden clasps, symbolising the seven Apocalyptic seals.80 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY."Dominus dominantium. " The greater number of thosealready given, as seen in the Book of Jesus Christ, arelikewise inserted in the Book of the Trinity. * TheByzantine manuscript dedicates to these inscriptions an article as follows:-INSCRIPTIONS FOR THE TRINITY.The Father Eternal-The Ancient of Days.The Co-eternal Son-The Word of God.The Holy Ghost-He who proceeds fromthe Father.The Holy Trinity-The only God of all things."In representing the Father and the Son with Scrolls,unrolled, write on the scroll of the Father, I begot theebefore Lucifer; ' or else, ' Sit thou on my right hand, untilI make thine enemies thy footstool. ' On the Gospel, in thehand of the Son, write, Oh Holy Father, I have glorifiedthee on the earth, I have declared thy name unto men; ' orelse, I and my Father are one; I am in the Father, and the Father in me.'"+

• A Romanesque enamel, of the twelfth century, in the collection of M. Didier

Petit, of Lyons, represents God seated on a rainbow, and surrounded by anundulating edge of clouds. This figure of God performs, with the right hand,the gesture of benediction after the Latin manner; in the left he holds a longbook, resembling the " Liber precum " in the Bibliothèque Royale. The bookis open; on the recto and verso of two pages are the following letters, in small Roman minuscules, slightly uncial: abcdefg-hik m n o p. Thesefourteen letters are thus arranged, seven on each page. I know not whetherany signification can be assigned to the number and selection of these letters.In any case, this alphabet, which is nearly complete, and inscribed on thedivine volume, is undoubtedly intended to signify that all knowledge comesfrom God, and that the book in his hand is that of the Holy Scriptures. ThisΑ IOF XMSN MEMindication may be found at No. 184 of the Catalogue of M. Petit. I saw this enamelled plate in 1843, at the time of the sale, and myself made a copy of the alphabet, if so it may be called . We find in No. 204 of the same catalogue:" Enamelled plate, the cover of a manuscript, representing Christ in the act of benediction, and holding in his left hand a tablet, on which are graven certain letters, in Roman and uncial characters." The letters are thus arranged, and placed within a frame.The A only is uncertain.+ See the Guide de la Peinture (Epunvéia TĤs (wypadikîĥs) , nearly at the conclusion. The Holy Ghost is there said to proceed from the Father, but notfrom the Son. The inscription, taken from Psalm cix. , is more complete than with us, who usually give the commencement only. The Greeks, less charitable, more harsh, and more Judaising in their ideas of Christianity, add the words, " until I make thine enemies thy footstool. "THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY. 81The three persons of the Trinity are represented barefootin Christian iconography, and the figures of the God inunity, with those of the Angels, of John the Baptist and ofthe Apostles, are also distinguishable from others by theirbare feet. However, examples may be found of Divine persons having their feet clothed. We have describedtwo instances of such* and given an illustration of athird. When the Father or the Son appear in papaldress, then the footgear of the sovereign pontiff is givenalong with the pontifical vestments; but this is quite apeculiar instance, and even in such a case the feet of theDivine persons are often left naked.༽Fig. 150. -THE TRINITY IN HUMAN FORM, WITH CRUCIFORM NIMBUS AND AUREOLE OF FLAME.The form of the nimbus, the crown and the aureole;the form of the globe and its divisions, along with theobjects which fill these divisions; the form of the bookand of the letters in the writing contained therein; theshape, number, nature, and colour of the robes furnisharchæological characteristics by which the date of sculp-

• They occur in the manuscript of Anne of Brittany, and in another manuscript of the same period also in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.

No. 886.† Vol. I. page 226, Fig. 63.VOL. II.G82 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.tured, chiselled, and painted effigies of the Trinity may be determined.It will be sufficient to give the accompanying illustrationof the Trinity ( Fig. 150) , a work of the fifteenth century,which shows the three persons, each one in human form.Each has the cruciform nimbus, and is enveloped in anaureole of flame. The Divine Dove is seen seated on thehead of the youth who personates the Holy Spirit. TheFather, as Pope, carries the globe of the Almighty; theSon, as Christ, bears the Cross of infinite love; the twopersons, Father and Son, are united by the Holy Spirit,who is the central figure of the group.Thus ends this portion of my task. I have felt itnecessary in the first instance to give the history of animportant archæological attribute, that is, the nimbus orglory; then that of the Being who presides over allimages as over all Christian doctrine-the history of God.To enlarge in like manner on the rest of Christian iconography would be exaggeration; nor could one life sufficenot only to bring forward, but even to gather the materialsfor such a work. However, some very brief and purelytechnical information on the Angel, the Devil, on scenesfrom the Old Testament, the Gospels and the legendaryor apocryphal writings will doubtless fulfil the object proposed by the Committee of Arts and Monuments.ICONOGRAPHY OFANGELS, DEVILS, DEATH, THE SOUL,AND THECHRISTIAN SCHEME OF SALVATION.CONCLUDED AND EDITED BYMARGARET STOKES.G 2EDITOR'S NOTE.I HAVE been requested by the publishers of the English translation ofthis work by the late M. Didron to continue and complete it. Noreason has been alleged to explain why the original scheme, as laiddown in the Introduction to our first volume, was never carried out,but it is more than probable that its very magnitude prevented itscompletion, and that the labours undertaken by the author in theeditorship of the ' Annales Archéologiques,' commenced in 1844, andonly closing with his death in 1867, interfered with the completion ofthis special work. However, the history of the Iconography of Angelsand Devils was in course of preparation at this period, and the 70wood engravings from drawings by M. Durand executed to illustratethese subjects have ever since remained unpublished . Portions of theletterpress intended for this work appeared from time to time in thepages of the Révue Française ' vol. x. , and Annales Archéologiques, 'vols. i . , xi. , and xviii. The numerous engravings accompanying thesepapers will now be reproduced here along with those hitherto unpublished.I have been obliged reluctantly to curtail these contributions ofM. Didron to the periodical literature of his day, in order to avoidprinting much that, although new when it first appeared , is nowfamiliar to English readers. I have also occasionally been compelledto introduce passages explanatory of some of the illustrations preparedby the author for the continuation of this work, but for which nodescriptive text could be found and the very provenance of which Ihad to discover. It only remains to explain that the portions of thework translated from M. Didron's text may be recognised by theinsertion of the initial D. at the top of every page, and by brackets atthe beginning and end of every interpolated paragraph.I have to own myself responsible for all the text following onpage 145, although the matter is mainly founded on the writings ofM. Didron, in whose footsteps, as a conscientious investigator of theiconographical systems of the great French cathedrals, I have humbly endeavoured to follow.CARRIG BRAEC, HOWTH,March, 1885.M. S.[D.]ICONOGRAPHY OF ANGELS.THE iconography of the Angels or Messengers of God.naturally follows on that of the Deity Himself, since they-beni Elohim, sons of God-may be described as emanations from God and as powers fulfilling His will. Whileuniformly held to have been created beings, yet many andvarious have been the theories as to the period of creationat which they sprang to life. The generally acceptedidea was, that as the incorporeal existed before the material,so angels were created before the world. Others haveheld that it was on the second day, and after the creationof the firmament, that angels came to life, and this viewseems to have been adopted by the sculptor of the Creationof Angels in Chartres Cathedral, where their forms are seen emerging from the heavens. A third view is thatGod must have made the angels at the close of the sixthday, when the creation of all material things had beenaccomplished. Thus, according to this last theory, thatprinciple of progress is maintained which is observablefrom the first to the sixth day in creation, rising fromdead substances to living forms till Man is reached, andafter him the still more perfect being, the Angel, is calledinto existence.The creation of angels is a subject very rarely to be metwith in art, still we may indicate three different methodsof treating it. The first is in a manuscript of the close ofthe thirteenth century, where the Creator may be seen, inthe form of God the Son, seated on a rainbow. Rays proceedfrom His mouth like a divine breath, from which ninegroups of angels are born and over whom His left hand israised in benediction. These rays are, as it were, the embodiment of the Word proceeding from God, the special"fiat " at the utterance of which the angels were brought86 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]forth. An illustration of this has been already given inour first volume at page 240, where it will be seen thatthere are nine groups of angels, three in each group, butthat all are identical. Thus the painter indicates the ninedivisions of the heavenly host, but without ordering theirranks.A second representation is afforded us by a carving inChartres Cathedral. Here only two angels are seen insteadof the nine united choirs. More materialistic, if one maysay so, than the miniature painter, the sculptor of Chartreshas endowed his angels with bodies, and bodies clothed inan upper and an under garment. These two angels openthe first act of their life drama, the one in act of adoration,the other of service; the one with hands folded inprayer, the other with hands outspread in ministration.A third representation, see Fig. 148, supra, p. 76, showsus the Creation of the Universe as arranged in concentriccircles. The nine choirs of angels occupy nine of these circles. We may believe that the author of this picture,Buonamico Buffamalco, who painted it in the fourteenthcentury, on the wall of the Campo Santo of Pisa, held thatangels were created after the material world. In fact, thenine external circles are filled by angels; the innermostcircles, the kernel, by the earth; but between the angelsand the earth, the signs of the zodiac, the constellations, thesun and moon, may be seen. Now, the stars having beencreated after the earth, from their intermediate positionbetween the terrestrial globe at the centre, and the angeliccircles which form the circumference, we must concludethat the order of creation indicated by this painting wasfrom the centre to the circumference; that, according toBuffamalco, creation was perfected spiritually and enlargedmaterially from the little round point which is our globe,to the immense outer circle filled by the most sublime ofcelestial beings-the Seraphim.Thus, without straining the interpretation of thesethree figures too far, we may see in the first -the miniature belonging to the close of the thirteenth century—thecreation of angels before the creation of the world; inthe second, which is a sculpture of the first half of thethirteenth century, the creation of angels on the secondday, with the firmament; in the third, which is a mural[D.] CREATION OF ANGELS. 87painting of the first half of the fourteenth century, thecreation of angels after that of the world.It will be well to reflect on these three assumed epochsof the birth of angels . Nothing is unimportant in theseMiddle Age designs, which are often rigorous representations of theological doctrine.AtSt. John Damascene, in his treatise upon angels, thusexpresses himself: " Some assert that angels were madebefore all other created substances; witness the words ofGregory the Theologian, who holds that intelligent naturewas created first and that of sense followed, and that thusman, who is composed of both, was finally created. "*first God conceived the idea of angelic and heavenlyvirtues, and then the idea was translated into being.Others admit, in preference, that angels were created afterthe first heaven. But all agree that they were made before man.St. Jerome shared this opinion; but he placed thecreation of angels at an epoch infinitely long before that of the world of sense. He carried it back to severalthousands of centuries before the age of the world.Dante, on the contrary, thought that this creation of theangels had scarcely preceded that of the world, andperhaps even had followed it. Indeed, he says thatangels are the motors of the sensible universe; but themotor may very well come after the substance that hesets in motion. The passage from Dante, which forms,as it were, a summary of our chapter, may be quotedhere: †-"... Not for increase to himselfOf good, which may not be increased, but forth To manifest his glory by its beams;Inhabiting his own eternity,Beyond time's limit or what bound soe'er To circ*mscribe his being; as he willed,Into new natures, like unto himself,Eternal love unfolded: nor before,As if in dull inaction, torpid, lay,For, not in process of before or aft,Upon these waters moved the spirit of God.Simple and mix'd, both form and substance, forth

• St. Gregory Nazianzen, Oratio Secunda.

† Dante, Paradiso, translated by Cary, cant. xxix.888CHRISTIANICONOGRAPHY.[D.]To perfect being started, like three dartsShot from a bow three-corded . And as rayIn crystal, glass and amber, shines entire,E'en at the moment of its issuing; thus Did, from the eternal Sov'ran, beam entire His threefold operation, at one act Produced coeval. Yet, in order, each Created his due station new; those highest,Who pure intelligence were made; mere power,The lowest; in the midst, bound with strict league,Intelligence and power, unsevered bond.Long tract of ages by the angels past,E'er the creating of another world,Described on Jerome's pages, thou hast seen.But that what I disclose to thee is true,Those penmen, whom the Holy Spirit moved,In many a passage of their sacred book,Attest; as thou by diligent search shalt find:And reason, in some sort, discerns the same,Who scarce would grant the heavenly ministers,Of their perfection void, so long a space.Thus, when and where these spirits of love were made,Thou know'st, and how: and knowing, hast allay'dThy thirst, which from the triple question rose.'The angel is conceived as a being at once intelligent,immortal and incorporeal, therefore practically invisibleto mortal eyes. However, in poetry and art the angel, asthe Deity Himself, has been endowed of necessity withform and body. Words can present images less formallythan line and colour, and they have resources which allowthe poet to rest in an abstraction forbidden to the designeror the painter. So, in poetry, the angel's body is more ethereal, more immaterial than in pictures. Ezekielpresents his angels, not only by comparing them tobrilliant stones, to crystal, molten brass, burning coal,flame, sparks, rainbows, clouds, lightning, breaths, glimmerings, but also to apparitions and even to visions ofapparitions of these images. It is impossible to attenuateor to spiritualise a substance farther. There is nothingperceptible to eye or ear beyond such visions of light andair. Light, that swiftest, least weighty, least material ofall bodies, is the substance to which angels have beenlikened. They are said to be made of light-or, as bySt. John of Damascus, held to have been a reverberation ofuncreated light, a reflection of the Divinity. An angel,[ D.] ANGELS OF DANTE. 89with Christian and Middle Age artists, is a multiformfocus of light, the varieties of which we shall have tomention hereafter.In Ezekiel, this angel form is that of a circle or of awinged wheel covered with eyes. The wheel and wingsto express the constant mobility with which angels areendowed; the eyes to symbolise the wakefulness of theirintelligence. "Angelus itaque est substantia intelligens ,perpetuo motu, nec non arbitrii libertate prædita, corporisexpers,"* &c.These wheels are united, in the prophet's vision, withthe body of a living being having hands, feet, with theface of a man or a lion, an ox or an eagle, but all withtwo or three pairs of wings, which are indeed the principal feature in these descriptions, being instruments oflocomotion and symbols of swiftness. From the time ofEzekiel we find that the winged human form, resplendentin light and colour, is the most usual representation of theangel offered to us by poetry and art. Dante, having in the 31st canto of Paradise shown us the luminous homein which these multitudes of celestial beings shine andshimmer, thus goes on to describe them (Purg. c. ii. ,translated by H. F. Cary):-" A light, so swiftly coming through the sea,No winged course might equal its career.From which when for a space I had withdrawn Mine eyes, to make inquiry of my guide,Again I looked, and saw it grown in size And brightness: then on either side appear'd Something, but what I knew not, of bright hue,Then by degrees from underneath it came Another. My preceptor silent yet Stood, while the brightness, that we first discerned,Open'd the form of wings: Then when he knewThe pilot, cried aloud, ' Down, down; bend low Thy knees; behold God's angel; fold thy hands:Now shalt thou see true ministers indeed.Lo! how all human means he sets at nought;So that nor oar he needs, nor other sail Except his wings, between such distant shores.Lo! how straight up to heaven he holds them rear'd ,Winnowing the air with those eternal plumes,That not like mortal hairs fall off or change,

• Opp. S. Joh. Damasceni, tom. i . de Angelis, cap. iii.; Ezekiel i . 15-21;

x. 9-14.90 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.As more and more toward us came, more brightAppear'd the bird of God, nor could the eye Endure his splendour near: I mine bent down."In canto xii. of Purgatory, Dante adds some details tohis picture:"Behold,That way an angel hasting towards usThe goodly shape approach'd us, snowy white In vesture, and with visage casting streams Of tremulous lustre like the matin star.His arms he opened, then his wings; and spake."Whoever has seen the mural paintings of Italy, themosaics ofGreece, the Byzantine enamels scattered throughout Europe, will recognize that the angels of Giotto andFig. 151.-SERAPH OF ST. FRANCIS.of Orcagna, of Fra Angelico and of Perugino, the angelsof St. Luke in Livadia, and Santa Sophia of Salonica, aswell as the angels on that priceless work, * the Byzantine

• This reliquary, made to enshrine a portion of the true cross, is of

considerable value and unparalleled beauty. It is held to date from thetenth century, and originally belonged to the Cathedral of Trèves.THRONES. 91reliquary of Limbourg, are only another expression in artof such angels as Dante has described . The same forms,the same wings, the same light; poetry and painting havetranslated an absolutely identical thought into twolanguages, the one through words, the other through lineand colour. Unfortunately we can only place our poorengravings by the side of the splendid text of Ezekiel andof Dante; but they suffice, however, to fill the eye withthe principal lineaments of these celestial forms.In light and colour, this seraph, taken from a miniatureof St. Francis receiving the Stigmata ( Fig. 151 ) forciblyrecalls the imagery of Dante. Wings, head, and body areone starlike flame, appearing like a meteor in the deepestblue of an Italian sky. St. Francis kneels in ecstasy uponthe ground below, while five rays dart from the seraphicsymbol and pierce his hands and feet and side as he listensto its salutation:--"Salve! sancte Pater patrie lux forma." *]The following (Fig. 152) is the most complete illustration that we are acquainted with of the winged and fieryFig. 152. THRONES. -FIERY TWO-WINGED WHEELS.

• These words are written in the fly-leaf opposite. This illustration, which is taken from the illuminated Hours of Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI. , was executed by Loys de Laval de Chastillon, and afterwards belonging to Henri IV. Bibl. Nat. No. 920 ( formerly 4299) , fol. 284a.

92 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]wheels spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel, " full of eyesround about. " * It comes from a little church at Athens,now probably destroyed, but which, at the date of ourjourney in Greece in 1839, possessed very remarkable muralpaintings of the thirteenth century.In a representation on the imperial dalmatic now preserved in the treasury of St. Peter at Rome, the feet ofJesus Christ rest on two wheels which exactly resemblethese. This magnificent vestment is of Byzantine origin,and indeed throughout all the ancient empire of Byzantium, angels are found of this wheel form, intended tobear the figure of God the Father or of Jesus Christ. †These wheels, specially assigned to the order of Thronesby the Byzantines, but attributed by Ezekiel to all angelsin general, are of various forms. At Chartres, they haveneither flames, nor wings, nor eyes; they rather affect the more material form of a chariot wheel. This is lesssymbolic, less poetic, and more commonplace. True, thiswheel is only the footstool, as it were, of the angel withthe six wings and eyes of the wheel in Greece.Fig. 153. SCULPTURED ANGEL, CHARTRES, XIII.CENT.On an ivory in the museum of theBarberini Palace, engraved by Gori,we find, not a wheel, but a circle without eyes and stripped of flames andwings. In the place of wings, an interlaced ribbon passes into the circle andforms a kind of quatrefoil. This is far-veryfar indeed-fromthe mysterious poetry of Ezekiel.AsThe Latins, more rational than theEasterns, have preferred representingangels under the human form.regards the ideal, Latin nations aredivisible into two classes: ultramontane or Italian , and western. Italians,nearest to that Greece who plantedher foot among them at Venice, atRavenna, and throughout all Sicily,Et rotas illas "Et omne corpus earum (rotarum), et colla, et manus, et pennae, et circuli plena erant oculis, in circuitu quatuor rotarum.vocavit volubiles. " Prophetia Ezechielis, cap. x. , v. 12 et 13.† Ann. Archéol. vol. i . p. 152.[D.] ANGELS IN WESTERN ART. 933383love to spiritualise the angels. They often leave themnothing more of the human form than the head, that is,the seat of intelligence. Nothing is more common, even inthe paintings of Perugino, at the dawn of the materialistFig. 154.-ANGELS. (Piero della Francesca. )Renaissance, than to see angels figured by infant heads,surrounded by six wings. Sometimes Italian artists liketo furnish these angels with a body, and in doing so theycut off the body below the bust. * The lower portion of thetrunk being intended for locomotion, they replace it by

• Annales Archéologiques, vol . i. 157.

94 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]a pair of wings. These wings fulfil the function of the limbs.The number of monuments is very great in whichangels are thus represented without bodies or limbs, andwe refer our readers to those portions of our first volumeFig. 155. -ANGEL WITHOUT FEET OR LEGS.Italian painting, XIV. cent.in which they are illustrated. Thus, at page 452, one of these angels, "disembodied souls," may be seen. The sealof the university of Avignon, a thoroughly Italian university, founded in 1303, shows an infant head surrounded by six wings. Indeed this is the form allotted toCherubim, ofwhom intelligence, that legitimate aim of alluniversities, is the especial attribute as compared with other orders of angels.In the West, where symbolism has least taken root, andwhere the ideal always gives way to the real, the angel isno longer a mere child such as the Italians give us, buta full grown, almost aged man, such as may be seenin many German, French and English manuscripts.This ( Fig. 156) is one drawn from a miniature probablyexecuted by a French hand, which dates from the twelfth[D.]ANGELS IN WESTERN ART. 95century. It has wings and nimbus, it is true, but isupwards of forty or fifty years of age, with robe, mantle,and a sceptre that rather resembles an alpenstock than asymbol of power or authority; with feet shod as if thoseFig. 156.-ANGEL from Ms.of an angel accustomed to fly with strong wings, andtherefore protected from sharp stones of earth. *Of all the angels we have ever noted, this is the mostmaterial, the most human, the least celestial spirit. Weshall perceive, in the course of our study, that the Western

• This figure represents the angel announcing the Ascension of Christ to the Women at His tomb. It is drawn from a MS. in the Bibl. Nat.

Paris, the number of which had escaped M. Didron's memory.-[ED. ]96 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]nations have an invincible tendency to humanise, and togive anordinary, every-daycharacter to their angelic beings.In Ezekiel the angel is particularly described as covered,and, as it were, clothed, by feathers. "And their wingswere stretched upward; two wings of every one werejoined one to another, and two covered their bodies.Every one had two which covered on this side, and everyone had two which covered on that side, their bodies."Ezek. i. 11 , 23. A scarf is knotted round the neck, likethat borne by the angel of Chartres; see Fig. 153. Thisscarf we find adopted by six of the nine choirs of angelspainted on the glass windows of the chapel of New College,Oxford. But these Oxford angels have also a girdle bound round their loins.Generally, where angels are given three pairs of wings,the addition of a scarf for the neck is sometimes thoughtsufficient, and more rarely still the waist scarf is introduced,but it is superfluous to endow them with robe and mantlebesides. Two wings, crossed on the breast, two wingsenclosing the body and limbs, is certainly sufficient.Nevertheless, the Middle-Age miniaturists, painters andsculptors, have arrayed their angels, already clothed withsix wings, in robe and mantle. Such is the followingangel taken from a manuscript Bible of the tenth century,or perhaps the ninth, with miniatures, which, though veryugly in execution, are most curious as drawings. *AfterFinally, to complete the costume or signs of the angels,it must be remarked, that, after the fifth century, allwithout exception bear a circular nimbus on the head, butbefore that date they are without this adornment.God the angel is the most sublime of beings; if apostles andsaints ofevery order are adorned with the nimbus howmuchrather should the angel carry this sign. And further:the angel by ordination of God sometimes represents theDivinity himself. Thus one of the three angels or threepersons whom the patriarch Abraham adored in the valleyof Mamre bears a cruciform nimbus, and this is the one who

• Bibliothèque Nationale, Biblia Sacra,' Lat. 6, fol . 7a. This Bible,

with its outline drawings, appears to have been executed in the north of Spain. In the 12th century it belonged to the Abbey of St. Pierre de Rosas in Catalonia. It afterwards formed part of the library of the Maréchal de Noailles.[D.] ANGELS IN BYZANTINE ART. 97directly represents the unity of God. Thus in the combatof the three angels with the demon, he who attackedBehemoth and who, being alone, would seem to require exceeding strength and almost divine power, if he is to prove victorious, bears a cruciform nimbus, while the twoantagonists of Leviathan have only a plain nimbus (seeFig. 132, supra, p. 17) .We see almost always amongthe Byzantines, and occasionallywith the Italians also, a smallhorn upon the angel's brow, oran elongated triangle or sometimes a cross, besides the oftenrichly decorated nimbus whichsurrounds the head. Is thissimply a head ornament, a jewel,and as it were part of the dress,or rather a symbolic attribute?It may be both. We see, if welook back to Vol. I. p. 282, thearchangels Raphael, Michael, andGabriel wearing this little triangle on the forehead, or a re- versed crescent such as thatwhich forms the diadem of oneof the enamelled Byzantineangels on the so-called cross of Namur. Fig. 157.-SIX-WINGED ANGEL HOLDING LANCE, WINGS CROSSED ON BREAST, ARRAYED IN ROBE AND MANTLE.Perhaps this reversed crescent,this little horn, as St. Veronicacalls it, is the sign of flame orstar-like fire, placed by pagans on the brow of theirGenius to express that sublimity of mind which burns aslight and comes from heaven. This Italian St. Veronica,who died in 1497, often saw angels who came to visitand converse with her. She gives a description of one ofthem in the following passage: "She saw that the angelbore a little horn on the middle of his forehead, that astole hung from his neck, and that he had wings, like asChristian painters habitually represent the angels. "*This little horn is the jewel or the flame we have just

• Annales Archéol. vol. xi. p. 361.

VOL. II. H98 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]mentioned; the stole is probably the scarf of the neck to which we referred in a previous passage. As to ourFrench angels, they wear the nimbus on the head and thatis all; no jewel, no flame, no star and no cross. VanEyck and Hemling, Master Stephan and Albert Dürer,afford examples of the cross borne on the angel's brow,examples which also occur in the miniatures of suchmanuscripts of the sixteenth century as are executed under an Italian or German influence.In order to complete the subject of the signs of angels we should enumerate and describe the attributes whichcharacterise them, and the objects or divers instrumentswhich they bear in their hands. But these attributesand instruments are given them according to the functions they fulfil as laid down by Dionysius the Areopagite, *who, following the passages in St. Paul's epistles to theEphesians (ch. i. 20) and Colossians (ch. i. 16), made thefollowing classification of the angelic hierarchy and theirsymbols:-( Seraphim .Counsellors Cherubim .ThronesDominations Governors Virtues PowersMinisters•Six wings and flabellum; head and two wings; fiery wheels; eyed wings.Wear long albs, golden girdles; and green stoles. A golden staff in right hand,the seal of God in the left.( Principalities . In soldier's garb, golden belts; holding Archangels lance-headed javelins; and hatchets inAngels • their hands.The saint then proceeds to enumerate other attributeswith which they are endowed. They wear rings assymbols of royal authority and of the rectitude with whichthey work; their lances and hatchets express the facultythey possess of discerning right from wrong, and thesagacity, vivacity, and power of this discernment. Theirinstruments of geometry and different arts shew that theyknow how to lay the foundation, to build up, and to finishtheir work, and that they possess all the powers of thatsecondary providence whicc guides inferior natures andconducts them to their goal. Sometimes also thoseemblematic objects carried by these holy intelligences

• See Œuvres de St. Denys l'Aréopagite, traduites du grec par M. l'Abbé Darboy. Paris, 1845, in- 8vo. ch. i. de la Hiérarchie Céleste, p. 242.

[D.] HIERARCHY OF ANGELS AT CHARTRES. 99announce God's judgments upon man, the severity of Hischastisem*nts, the vengeance of His judgments. It maybe also deliverance from peril, the fulfilment of thechastisem*nt, the restoration of the lost treasure, and theincrease of corporeal and spiritual graces.In the ordinary preface of the mass, which is veryancient, the Angels, Archangels, Thrones, Dominations,Powers, Virtues, Seraphim, are mentioned. Neither theCherubim nor Principalities are present, and the hier- archical order is not well observed. In the " Te Deum "the Cherubim are named with Seraphim, the Powers, theAngels, and the Heavens (Thrones), but neither the Dominations, Virtues, Principalities nor Archangels figurethere. Thus out of nine, four and perhaps five classes are absent. Therefore it is to St. Dionysius that not only thecomplete nomenclature of the nine choirs of celestialspirits belongs, but also their systematic hierarchy.St. Dionysius was a Greek, consequently it is in the Greekand in the Byzantine church that we should meet withthe most frequent and most complete representation in art of the nine choirs of angels. In the Latin church itis a little more rare, as we shall see , to find a hierarchy,painted or carved.The Cathedral of Chartres offers one example sculpturedon the southern porch, and another painted on glass inthe south transept. The hierarchy occupies the cordon ofthe voussoir of the port of the Sainte-Chapelle of Vin- cennes, which gives two examples drawn from each ofthe nine groups, so that the whole of the order is clearly characterised. In a south chapel of the cathedral atCahors, the whole celestial army is sculptured in detail .That of Chartres belongs to the thirteenth century,Vincennes to the fourteenth, and Cahors to the fifteenth.In Fig. 158 we show one of four seraphim which stand inthe bay of the south porch of Chartres, in the first row of the hierarchy of angels in the Last Judgment. Thisform is six-winged, holding flames, while the next, Fig. 159,holds globes upon which the monogram of Christ is inscribed. This last is one of four cherubim on the leftside of the row on the same porch. Figs. 160 and 161 are two angels enthroned, one holding a sword, the other with crown and sceptre. There are three of these thronedH 2100 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]figures, sceptred, crowned, and with feet shod. Fig. 162is an Angel of Judgment sounding the trumpet. There arefour of these, two to the right and two to the left. Fig.163 is an angel wearing a dalmatic and holding a book ofthe Gospel, "Liber scriptus proferetur." There are nineof these in a line to the left of the spectator. *Greece, the country of St. Dionysius, is richer thanFig. 158. Fig. 159.France in such complete representations of the hierarchy

• M. Didron adds in a note to the Guide to Painting, p. 77: " De l'Iconographie Chrétienne, Histoire de l'Ange, nous décrirons en détail les différents chœurs des anges sculptés et peints à la Sainte-Chapelle de Vin- cennes, à la cathédrale de Chartres, à celle de Cahors, à celles d'Albi et de Reims." We shall give a definition of their names and functions with

respect to God and man. Hitherto we have only given the generic, not the individual nomenclature. See Annales Archéologiques, tom. xviii. p. 72.[D.] ANGELIC HIERARCHY AT IVIRÔN. 101of angels. One of the finest examples we can bringforward is to be seen in the great convent of Ivirôn onMount Athos, in the cupola of a church dedicated to thearchangels. The Pantocrator presides in the centre ofthe cupola; the nine choirs of angels are arranged around him in nine ranks. An inscription runs under eachtelling the name and function of each order. The CreatorFig. 160.Fig. 161.faces the west, to his right are the three orders ofCounsellors, to the left, of Governors, and above his headthe Ministers. Each choir is represented by a vast multitude of angels receding and ascending, step by step, tillthey are finally lost in the blue of heaven. Commencingwith (I.) COUNSELLORS, we see first a little figure holdinga scroll on which we read EPAIM (seraphim), and102 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]this being is further described in the Greek inscriptionwhich occupies the entire length of the compartment,πύρινοι ὄντες οἱ σεραφὶμ τὸ εἶδος πυροῦσι βροτοὺς πρὸς ἀγάπησιν θεῖαν."The seraphim being fiery in appearance, inflame mortals towards divine love.""They are altogether red like flame. Their bodies andtheir three pairs of wings all red; a red and flaming swordFig. 162.Fig. 163.in the right hand. Their feet are bare. Thus, accordingto the etymology of their names, they are living flamesthat burn with and enkindle Divine love.II. CHERUBIM.The little angel who introduces them bears on its scroll: XEP.[D.]ANGELIC HIERARCHY AT IVIRÔN. 103The inscription on the compartment runs thus: -χύσιν σοφίας χερυβὶμ κεκτημένοι χύδην κινοῦσι τε ἡμῖν ἐκεῖθεν."The cherubim, possessors of the pouring forth of wisdom, pour it forth in floods from that source into us.'A single pair of wings, variegated, but whose general aspect is blue. A robe surmounted by a mantle, andbelow the mantle, a short tunic descending to the knees,slightly resembling that worn by our bishops. Feetshod. The robe, the mantle, the tunic, and the foot-gearall very rich.III. THRONES.Upon the scroll held by the little angel we read: OPONThe inscription in the compartment reads:-ὑπερίδρυνται ἐσχατίας ἁπάσηςοἱ ἀμφὶ τὸν ὕψιστον ὑψηλοὶ θρόνοι." Above all limit are set the high thrones around the Most High."Two fiery wheels, winged with four wings filled witheyes. An angel's head with aureole appears below each of these wheels and rises towards the centre. The Virginappears below near these thrones, in that choir of whichshe forms a part, according to Byzantine theology. Sheis praying, her hands raised towards heaven. Near herthis inscription may be read: —ἐξαίρει θρονοὺς τοῦ θεοῦ ὄντως θρόνος θεοῦ."True Throne of God, she exalts the thrones of God. "IV. DOMINATIONS.On the scroll of the little angel here: KYP.Inscription on the compartment:-

-

πρὸς τὴν ὄντως φέρουσι κυριαρχίαναὐτοκρατόρου κυριότητες νεύσιν. *"The dominations direct their will in accordance with the truly supreme power of the absolute Master. "

• It would appear that this motto has been incorrectly copied from the

fresco painting.104 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]Angels with two wings, robe, mantle and clothing for the feet. In the right hand, the seal of God, a discmarked by the Greek monogram of Jesus Christ TC XC.In the left hand, a long staff surmounted by a cross.TheHoly Virgin belongs to the Thrones; St. John the Baptist is among the Dominations. This is a human domination,a dignity due to him, according to Byzantine theology,because of his virtue and his title as Harbinger of JesusChrist. St. John is winged, exactly because he was theangel and the messenger of God. His robe is of skin, and mantle of stuff. He has naked feet, like an apostle andJesus Christ himself, although the dominations, to whomhe is allied, have feet shod.V.-POWERS.Upon the scroll of this little angel: AYN.The inscription on the compartment:-ἀκατάσειστον ἀνδρεῖαν αἱ δυνάμεις φέρουσι τὰς σφαίρας τε πόλου κινοῦσι."The Powers possess invincible courage and put the spheres of heaven in motion. "Angels with two wings, robe, and mantle, above which isa short tunic descending to the knees. Embroidered borderat the bottom of robe and tunic and round the collar ofthe mantle. The feet are bare. In the right hand, theseal of God, or the globe, marked by the monogram ofJesus Christ; in the left hand a long staff terminated by a cross.VI.-AUTHORITIES.On the scroll of the little angel: EOYE.The inscription on this compartment:—ἡ ἐξουσιῶν ἔξοχος ἐξουσία ὅλη νένευκε τῇ ἐξουσιαρχίᾳ."The authority that excels authorities has wholly bowed to the archauthority. "Angel with two wings, a robe and mantle, but withoutornaments, and with bare feet. In the right hand, the[D.]ANGELIC HIERARCHY AT IVIRÔN. 105seal of God stamped with the monogram of Jesus Christ;in the left hand, a long staff ending in a cross.VII.-PRINCIPALITIES.On the scroll of the little angel: APXÃI.Inscription:-τὸ θεοειδὲς ἀρχικὸν ἐκτυποῦσι πλεῖστα θαύματ' αἱ ἀρχαὶ ἐνεργοῦσαι."Principalities, many wonder working, figure the essence of Divine rule. "Angels with two wings, robe, mantle covered by a tunicdescending to the knees. Feet shod. Great richness ofdress. In the right hand the seal of God engraved withthe monogram of Christ; in the left, a lily branch, insteadof the baton expanded into a cross.VIII. ARCHANGELS.On the scroll of this little angel: APXAT.Inscription:-ἀρχαγγελικὴ ἀρχαγγέλων τάξις μέση ταῖς ἀρχαῖς κοινωνεῖ καὶ ἀγγέλοις."The archangelic order of archangels combines with the principalities and the angels, being between them."Soldiers winged with two wings: no helmet, but abreastplate and buskins. In the left hand a globe markedbythe monogram of Jesus Christ. In the right hand a nakedsword, point upwards. This is the type so constantlypresented in the archangel Michael.IX.-ANGELS.On the scroll of the little angel: ArгĒ.Inscription:-τὸ λειτουργικὸν ὄντως ἀγγέλοις πρέπει ἄνω κάτω τρέχουσιν ἕνεκ᾽ ἀνθρώπων."The work of ministry is the true office of angels who ascend and de- scend in the service of men."A multitude of two-winged angels richly clothed.Dressed like deacons in alb and dalmatic. In the right106 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]hand, the Divine seal marked by the monogram of JesusChrist. In the left hand, a long staff terminating in alittle cross. Feet richly shod, like those of angels on the reliquary of Limbourg.The following inscription runs all round this cupola,from base to frontal. It is, in a manner, a résumé of thatwhich has been already given in detail:--οἱ ἀμφὶ τὸν πρώτιστον νοῦν τὴν τριάδα νόες δεύτεροιτριαδικῶς τελοῦντες ἐκ τριῶν πάτων τὸ τριμερὲς νέος μου λῦσαι ὡς θέμις τοῖς λειτουργοῖς τριῖδος."May the secondary spirits which surround the primary Spirit, the Trinity, working in a threefold manner, deliver the triple part of my spirit from the three passions, as is right for those who adore the Trinity."At the same Monastery of Ivirôn, in the church of theПlavayia Пopтairwooa, that is to say, of the Virgin Portress,or virgin guardian of the door, the angels who surroundthis Virgin are, on the one hand, Seraphim with six wings,namedΕξαπτέρες, but without feet; on the other Πολυόμματα,Thrones, circles of five with four wings filled with eyes.In the great church of the same Convent of Ivirôn,named Пlavayías Koiunois, " Death of the Virgin," the porch,which is entirely painted over, shows in the vault thenine choirs of angels surrounding Jesus Christ, whosegolden and cruciform nimbus is marked with O ON.Their names not being inscribed and their attributesbeing almost the same in all, it is not possible to define them. There are only two choirs more clearly definedthan in the Church of the Archangels, the one beingthat of the Thrones, the other that of the Angels, properlyso called. The Thrones are crowned as kings; they areclothed in long robe and mantle. They hold in the lefthand a long sceptre or baton, with floriate termination;in the right hand a staff, with a cartel, banner, square, andflat, on which may be read: " Holy, holy, holy, LordGod of Sabaoth; heaven and earth are full of Thy glory."As to the angelic choir, it is represented by a crowd oftwo-winged angels, in soldiers' dress, with casque, cuirass,and shod in buskins, holding a floriate sceptre, and in the left, a staff with square banner on which we may read:Holy, holy, holy! "66We seem now to have said enough upon all these Greek[D.] JOHN THE MESSENGER. 107angels, still so imperfectly defined, notwithstanding thelaws laid down by St. Dionysius the Areopagite; endowedwith attributes too similar to allow of our distinguishingone from another without risk of error; baptised by nameswhich have synonymous names, and which are borne by diverse choirs. In addition we still have to treat of thehierarchy of Latin angels and enlarge on this subject, butbefore doing so we must pass in review those angels executed in Latin churches under evidently Byzantine influence, and our remarks on this Romano- Byzantinehierarchy will serve to clear up what is still obscure about the nine choirs of the Greeks. *[" In his character of Messenger," writes Mrs. Jameson,"the Greeks represented John with large wings, _ofwhich there are many examples in Byzantine art. Forinstance, in a Greek ivory diptych, in which he standsthus winged, with his head in a dish (charger) athis feet. In another instance, a picture half- length, hehas large wings, and holds his own head in his hand."A somewhat similar representation of this figure is givenat page 70, Vol. I. of this work, from a fresco painting inthe Convent of Kaisariani on Mount Hymettus. TheGreek Church translates literally the words of St. Mark:" Behold I send my angel before thy face (i . 2) . In theWest, where the spirit is more regarded than the letter,St. John has a nimbus, but the wings are dispensed with.In this illustration the angel-saint holds his cross andscroll in the left hand while giving benediction with theright, and on the scroll is written:—ποιήσατε κάρπους ἀξίους μετανοίας."Bring forth fruits worthy of repentance."The place of John in the hierarchy of angels is among the Dominations, as has been indicated in theextract from St. Dionysius given above (see p. 104) in thedescription of the Hierarchy in the church of Iviron.Wingless angels with feet firmly planted on the groundare seen occasionally in Western art. Thus in a manu-

• M. Didron did not live to carry out this portion of his work, and the following account of the Iconography of Angels is extracted and con- densed from his essays on the subject in the Annales Archéologiques, vol.

xi. pp. 346, 362; xii . p. 168; xviii. p. 72.108 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.script of the eleventh century, in the BibliothèqueNationale, M. C. Bayet * has found an illustration of theRepose of Christ, where the Saviour is represented reclining on a couch, with fifty- seven angels and seraphsОАПОС 105 Ο ΠΡΟΔΡΟΜOCποιησατεкарпουσΜεταVoraσEDFig. 164.standing in serried ranks behind, none ofwhomhave wings.Piero della Francesca also, in his Presepio, in the NationalGallery of London, paints the noble forms of five winglessangels, who have walked across the hills to sing theirsimple hymn in the stable at Bethlehem (see Fig. 154).† ]

• See L'Art Byzantin. C. Bayet, p. 163.

† N.B. The portions of this work enclosed in brackets are by the Editor.ICONOGRAPHY OF DEVILS. 109ICONOGRAPHY OF DEVILS.The Iconography of Lucifer and the rebellious angels should follow that of the Hierarchy of Heaven. Theorigin of these images is traceable to the Hebrew Scriptures. Thus in Isaiah we read, " How art thou fallen fromheaven, O Lucifer, son of the Morning! how art thoucut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations!For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend intoheaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God: Iwill sit upon the Mount ofthe Congregation " (xiv. 12, 13)."Thefollowingillustration," saysM.de Challemel, " showsFig. 165.-LUCIFER BEFORE THE FALL.Lucifer before his fall. * It is drawn from the MS. entitled' Hortus deliciarum,' formerly in the library of Strasburg, which was written and painted for the Convent of

• See La France Littéraire, vols. ii . , iii. " Hist. du Diable. "

110 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [M. 8. ]St. Odilius in Alsace. Strength and pride are the characteristics of this figure, standing with globe and sceptre, asone who would make himself equal to God. In anothermanuscript, * Bible historiée of the 13th century,' Luciferis represented as irreverently seated in the presence ofGod, in illustration of the words ' I will sit also upon theMount of the Congregation. ' These are the only instanceswe have met with as yet of Lucifer before the fall."There is a manuscript in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, in Paris, No. 1186, called the Breviary of St. Louis,on the fly-leaf of which is inscribed, " C'est le psautierMonseigneur Saint Loys ... lequel fu à sa mêre."The following illustration of the fall of Lucifer is takenfrom this breviary, and it adds no little to the interestof this miniature that it is found in a prayer- book of thecelebrated Queen Blanche of Castille (A.D. 1220 to 1252),and was possibly given by her to St. Louis of France,when a youth under her careful guardianship. Thepainter of this miniature appears to have closely followedthe instructions of the Byzantine painter's guide:-" Heaven. Christ seated as King on a throne, holdingthe Gospel open at the words: 'I have seen Satan likelightning fall from heaven.' A multitude of angels stand around in great fear. Michael is in the midst; on hisscroll is written, ' Let us stand in awe and here adore theKing our God.' Mountains are beneath, and a great gulf in which is written: TARTARUS. Lucifer and all his armyfall from heaven. Above the forms [ of his angels ] arevery beautiful; at a lower point they change to angels of darkness; lower still they are darker and blacker;below that again they are half demons, half angels; and finally they are all black and hideous demons. At thebottom, and under all the others, in the midst of the abyss -Lucifer, blackest and most terrible of all , lies prostrateon the ground, looking upwards. "Thus in this illustration the forms of Lucifer's army,just falling out of heaven where the Lord is seated amidstHis adoring host, are angelic still. They have the nimbus,wings and robes of prismatic colours, red, blue, green,etc., on a golden ground. But the features are already

• See History of Our Lord in Art, Introd . vol. i . p. 56 , where Lady Eastlake gives engraved facsimile of this figure.

[M. S.]FALL OF LUCIFER. 111undergoing a transformation, the mouth changing to anFig. 166.open throat, the nose to a beak. When they enter thegulf they have neither nimbus nor robe; a tail projects112 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [M. S.]behind, feet and hands are changed to paws, nails becomeas claws, and all the skin resembles that of a monkey;the face is no longer human, but bestial and monstrous.In the Italian Speculum Humanae Salvationis ( Bibl.de l'Arsenal, No. 593), the illustrations in which are heldto belong to the school of Giotto, we have the followingrepresentation of the Fall of the Angels: The Almighty,partially seen through the clouds, drives them downwardwith a motion of His hand.Fig. 167.-FALL OF LUCIFER.Lucifer, emperor of demons, as he is called in a MS. preserved in the Bibliothèque Nat. Paris, is represented underthe most hideous aspects. He has frequently three heads,each oneof which devours a soul of the damned. Even beforethe time of Dante, these three-headed demons have beenpainted in France, and before the birth of the artist whohas depicted them upon the walls of the Campo Santo ofPisa. This is one proof amongst many that Dante visitedFrance, and having seen Paradise, Purgatory, and Hellsculptured in the voussoirs and painted on the glass of our[M. S. ] LUCIFER. 113great cathedrals, he loves to describe them in poetry. * Fig.168 represents a four-headed Satan, engraved by Didron, theprovenance of which we have not been able to ascertain.DFig. 168.Yet in the abyss,Lightly he placed us.The emperor who swaysThat Lucifer with Judas low engulphs,The realm of sorrow, at mid-breast from the ice Stood forth; and I in stature am more likeA giant than the giant are his arms.Mark now how great that whole must be which suits With such a part. If he were beautiful As he is hideous now, and yet did dare To scowl upon his Maker, well from him May all our misery flow. Oh, what a sight!How passing strange it seemed when I did spy Upon his head three faces: one in front Of hue vermilion, the other two with thisMidway each shoulder joined and at the crest;The right twixt wan and yellow seemed; the left To look on, such as come from whence old Nile Stoops to the lowlands. Under each shot forthTwo mighty wings, enormous as became A bird so vast. No plumes had they,VOL. II.I114 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]We have also seen a three-headed devil, devouring threefigures, at St. Basile d'Étampes. ]Satan is alive wherever evil and suffering exist, so thatto write a complete history of the Devil we should dealwith a great part of the history of the universe; therefore we must confine ourselves to a certain limited treatmentof the subject. It is with archæology, positive, experimental, anatomical, if we may so say, that we are here concerned-not with philosophy; our business is to record anddescribe, but not to seek to interpret.Evil is either physical or moral; it gnaws and consumesthe body or the soul of man, it demands his life or hisvirtue. The personification that has been made of evil,through help of metaphor, concentrates these two kinds ofevil in itself. Among the ancients, as among Christiansat a later age, physical evils are personified in natural phenomena, such as convulsions of nature, precipices, gulfs—ever open to devour mankind. Thus, in the gulf betweenMessina and Reggio there was a horrible monster; theGreeks represented it as a beast with six long necks, six enormous heads, twelve claws to grasp its prey, andsix throats ready to devour it. A host of dogs barkedin its belly, and issuing forth from its body, though tied toits waist, by their continual yelling terrified all thatpassed by. When the monster, who had been, before itsfall, a lovely nymph, a kind of pagan angel, beheld itsmetamorphosis, it was so terrified that it threw itself intothe sea, in the very strait that bears its name and whichit still inhabits. If Etna almost perpetually growls, andBut were in texture like a bat, and theseHe flapped in the air, that from him issued still Three winds wherewith Cocytus to its depth Was frozen. At six eyes he wept the tearsAdown three chains distilled with bloody foam.At every mouth his teeth a sinner champed,Bruised as with ponderous engine; so that three Were in this guise tormented.In the systems of infernal government constructed by later writers,Lucifer was either placed at the head of all the devils, or reckoned as one of the seven chief infernal potentates under the supremacy of Belial. In Marlowe's Faustus ( sc. iii . ) he is " Arch-regent and commander of all spirits,'" " Chief Lord and regent of perpetual night! ... Prince of the East "(sc. v. 104) . He reigns in the Orient, while Beelzebub rules in the South.[D.] RIVER DEMONS. 115shakes from base to summit, if it vomits masses of rock andfloods of burning lava, it is a giant thunderstruck byJupiter and chained within its caverns, if it quakes it isthe giant within who strikes the mountains, if it groanshe howls in echo. The mournful and angry sigh ofEnceladus tears the rocks, and tosses them to the skywith flaming breath, as if to attack triumphant Jupiteragain.Among the Scandinavians these earthquakes were inlike manner personified as gods: such as the evil god, ordemon, named Loki. After having scattered sin throughout all Scandinavia, as a sower sows his grain, Loki wasat last chained to pointed rocks. When he turns himself,Fig. 169. PERSONIFICATION OF RIVER. *like a sick man upon the sharp stones, the earth trembles,when he foams at mouth and drops his poisonous spittle onthe ground, his nerves are convulsed, and the earth quakes.Among Christians, the ardent southern imagination ofFrance personifies the inundations and caverns of the Rhone in the monster of the Tarasque. So when Chris- tianity expelled Vulcan, the Cyclops, and the Giants fromEtna and the Lipari islands, it was only to make room for

• It is to be regretted that the provenance of this illustration has not been ascertained.-[ED. ]

† On the River Symbols of Antiquity, see Annales Archéol. tom. ix.pp. 107-8.I 2116 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]66demons in their stead. Indeed, Odilon , abbot of Cluny,instituted the Fête des Morts in order to release a multitude of suffering souls from purgatory, and to place them in paradise. He freed these souls, purified by the prayers ofthe living, from the demons who tormented them, to give them to the care of angels. Then," as a holy hermitrelates, " frightful sounds were heard in Etna, and deafening explosions in the neighbouring isles." This uproar wascaused by Satan and all his court, Satan and all his demoniacal retinue, who howled in despair, and with loud criesdemanded back the souls lost to them since the day of this new Festival.The historyofthese imaginary monsters is much the samein the end, although they are called by different names;thus, the Serpent is called Graouilli at Metz; Gargouille atRouen; * Clair Sallé at Troyes; Grand Gueule at Poitiers;Tarasque at Arles. † "In France," says M. Alfred de Maury,"these legends do not date very far back, and the oldest,that of the Tarasque of Arles, is first mentioned by Gervaisof Tilbury, an English writer, marshal of the kingdomof Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th century.‡I now have to treat of the authors of conflagrations(incendiaries) in the history of the Devil."One day," writes Frodoard, an historian, born atEpernay in 894, and who wrote the history of the Churchof Rheims-" one day St. Remi, Archbishop of Rheims,was absorbed in prayer inside a little church in his belovedtown. He thanked God for having been able to save fromthe snares of the demon all the most beautiful souls in hisdiocese, when some one announced to him that the townwas on fire . Then the lamb turned to a lion; angerinflamed the face of the saint, who stamped on the flagstones of the church with terrible energy, and cried out,' Satan, I detect thee. After all I am not yet rid ofthee and thy wickedness.' The footprints where St. Remi

• Gargouille, from Low Latin gargola, which means a shout.

Tarasque is derived from the name of a French town, Tarascon near Arles, where it was the custom on holidays to carry round the effigy of amonster or dragon. Légendes pieuses au Moyen Age, Maury, p. 147, n. 1 ." Les miracles que Frodoard attribue aux premiers archevêques de Rheims ne sont pas racontés avec le génie d'Homère; cependant ils ont aussi excité l'enthousiasme populaire, ils ont aussi été admis et transmis de bouche en bouche avec une foi fervente; et le tableau de St. Remi chas-[D.] FIRE DEMONS. 117furiously stamped on the flagstones at the door are still shown. Then the saint armed himself with his crosier andhis cope, as a warrior with his sword and his cuirass, andflew to meet the enemy. He had scarcely advanced a fewsteps when he perceived the wreaths of fire and flamesdevouring, with irresistible fury, the wooden houses of which the city was built, and their thatched roofs. Atsight of the saint the fire seemed to lessen and grow pale.Remi, who knew the enemy with whom he had to do,made the sign of the cross, and the fire retreated as the saint advanced. The fire slackened its hold and fled as ifsubjugated by the power of the bishop, or like someintelligent being that understood its own weakness . Someएए एFig. 170. FIRE DEMON. *times it bore up again, took courage, and attempted toencircle the saint in fire, to blind him, and reduce him tocinders, but with the sign of the cross he parried the attacksand defeated its purpose. Thus forced back, and retreatingfrom the houses, one after another, that had been envelopedin flame, the fire demon sank at the bishop's feet like a conquered animal, let itself be taken and led at the will of thesaint, outside the town, into the moat bywhich Rheims is stillfortified, and Remi opened a door leading to a subterraneanchamber, and there thrust down the flames as a malefactormight be thrown into a pit; he made fast the door and forbade its ever being opened again under pain of anathema,of ruin of body and death of the soul. Once an imprudent,curious, and perhaps sceptical man, wanting to brave thissant devant lui, de rue en rue, l'incendie qui consumait la ville de Rheims,n'est dépourvu ni d'énergie ni d'éclat. " For legend see Frodoard, Hist. de l'Eglise de Rheims; Guizot, Mémoires relatifs à l'Histoire de France, p. 35.

• It is to be regretted that the provenance of this illustration has not been ascertained .—[ED. ]

118 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]prohibition, and to force his way into the abyss, wasdriven forth by rolling masses of flame, scorched, andthen retreated finally of themselves into the cave where the deathless will of the saint held them enchained." *In the Missal of Poitiers we see the Devil as at once theruler and the guardian of hell ( see Fig. 171) .He is chained to its mouth as a dog to its kennel, andyet wields his trident sceptre as if monarch of the Hell heguards. Cerberus and Pluto in one, he is yet a Cerberusof Christian art, a demon more hideous and more filledwith energy than Pagan art has offered . Mounted abovethe monkey demon whom we see here caught in the jaws ofHell and Death, this image figures the various aspects ofinfernal sin by its many faces, having a face on thebreast as well as the head, a face on each shoulder and aface at each hip. How many more behind? With longears like those of a hound, thick short horns of a bull,his legs and arms are covered with scales, and seem toissue from the mouths of the faces at his joints. He has alion's head with tusks, and hands like the claws of a bear.His body, open at the waist, reveals a nest of serpentsdarting forth and hissing. In this monster we find all theelements of a dragon, leviathan, lion, fox, viper, bear,bull, and wild boar. It is a compound of each evilquality in these animals, embodied in a human form.66One ofthe most extraordinary conceptions of Satan thathas come down to us from the Middle Ages is that figure seated in the midst of the Hell which forms one of the four' Novissima " on the walls of the Campo Santo at Pisa, saidto have been painted by Orcagna in conjunction with hisbrother Bernardo. † A vast rib or arch in the walls of pandemonium admits one into the gulf of Hell, in which Satansits in the midst, in gigantic terror, cased in armour andcrunching sinners. The punishments of the wicked are

• See La France Littéraire, vol. iv. p. 174. ( 1841.)

In another of the same series of frescoes in the Campo Santo, on thewall between the first and second entrance, demons are represented torturing St. Ranieri, which certainly date from the period when ideas and types belonging to the East begin to invade the West. These demons all havehuman faces, however. These scenes from the life of St. Ranieri, thepatron of Pisa, were formerly held to have been painted by Simon diMartino of Siena, but this is contradicted by Kugler, who holds them to be the work of some unknown artist about the date 1360.SATAN IN MISSAL OF POITIERS. 119Fig.171. -SATAN IN MISSAL OF POITIERS.120 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [ D.]portrayed in numberless circles around him. Although,Fig. 172.-DEVIL IN CAMPO SANTO, PISA.according to Vasari, Orcagna in this work drew much ofhis inspiration from Dante, yet his is not the three-[D.] SATAN IN BYZANTINE ART. 121faced monster of the poet's Inferno, canto xxxiv. [ M.Didron discovers a great resemblance between this Pisandevil and the great Satan in the Last Judgmenton the west wall of the principal church in the Conventof St. Gregory at Mount Athos. The latter is naked, andcarries the enormous key of hell hanging to his waist. Ahuman form, fat and gross, but with a long and powerfultail. His feet and hands have eagle's claws, an ox headand horns, and a goat's beard. Flames issue from theeyes and mouth. He holds a little naked being (one ofthedamned) in his left hand, squeezing him against his sidetill fire gushes from his mouth; with his right hand hedirects another little devil to carry a basket full of thescrolls in which the evil deeds of men are chronicled, todeliver to the angel who weighs men's souls in the balance. For ears he has dogs' heads; and on eachshoulder a monstrous head stretches open its throat andvomits flame. At each knee another head also vomitsflame. This Satan of Mount Athos again bears a singularresemblance to a chief Satan which appears in a fifteenthcentury MS. inthe Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. It wouldbe deeply interesting to establish the Greek origin of theSatan of the Campo Santo and of that of the illuminator. ]The Oriental Devil is the personification of a rank andexuberant nature, mother and cruel step-dame, creatrix andhomicide all in one. In the first ages there was understoodto be but one primary Cause of all-this Cause both goodand evil: one sole God himself the author of evil as of good.Later on the start was made, the Cause bifurcated on oneside was God, the source of all good; on the other theDevil, who engenders all evil. But God and the Devilare clothed in monstrous forms-the Devil especially. His intellectual and varied powers are designated by manyheads on one trunk. The intelligence that can embraceall things and penetrate everywhere is symbolised by anumber of arms and legs. As the animal life is strongerthan other created life, more intelligent and more formidable, and as each animal is endowed with some particularquality, this symbol of the evil genius was composed ofall these predominant attributes without any secondarycharacteristic, and the Devil became an epitome of all hideous forms in zoological nature. A Persian Devil122 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]appears in an engraving in the Didron collection inthe form of a man, clothed and wearing necklets, bracelets,and anklets, but with claws on his heels and toes, andhorns on his head. He is named Ahriman, Spirit ofDarkness, the Iranian enemy of Ormuzd, second-born ofthe Eternal One, like Ormuzd, an emanation from thePrimal Light; equally pure, butambitious and full of pride, he hadbecome jealous of the first-born of God. He created three series ofevil spirits-male and female (seeFig. 20).foAn Egyptian Devil, engravedfrom Montfaucon, see Fig. 174, hasa human head from which project the heads of six animals, onethat of an ox, one of a bird, andfour others apparently those ofserpents. Typhoeus, the whirlwind, or Typhoon, has a hundredserpent heads in Greek mythology.This extravagant and monstrousimage cited by Montfaucon has ahuman body with large wings and four arms. With one of his handshe holds an object described by Montfaucon as the tail of someanimal. *A hideous representation ofanother such monster is to befound in a Turkish manuscript inthe Bibl. Nationale, Paris, S.C. 242.This book was obtained by Napoleon I. at Cairo, and presented tothe National Library of Paris. Onthe fly-leaf we read " Livre quicontient la figure d'Aftree," andbelow the author's name is given," Saïaidi Mahammed ebu emer Hassan esseoudi," 990 ".The flesh of this monster is olive, his eyes are green withred pupils, and his tongue is also red. He wears a green

• See Montfaucon, AntiuiteExpliquée, vol. ii . plate facing p. 197, Fig. 6.

Fig. 173. PERSIAN DEVIL.[D.] EGYPTIAN DEVILS. 123scarf round his loins, pale purple trousers lined with blue,and necklets and armlets of gold. ( See Fig. 175.)The Devil was also endowed with the features of a lion,of a tiger, an eagle, a man, or a bull, to show that evilwas angry as one, cruel as another, swift as a third,intelligent as a fourth, strong and indomitable as thelast. Out of this combination and multiplicity of bizarre,heterogeneous, and impossible forms, a monstrous beingwas developed. *Monstrosity is, in fact, the character of the Genius ofEvil in the East. Therefore it is that in the Apocalypse,which is a work altogether Eastern both in conceptionand in execution, so muchstress is laid upon themonstrous forms of itsdemons. There we find,Rev. xii. 2, the dragon withseven heads and ten horns,and a tail so mighty that with it he can cast thestars of heaven to the earthwith one blow. And thereis the beast of the sea, Rev.xiii . 1 , with a body like aleopard, feet as the feet ofa bear, mouth like themouth of a lion.Fig. 174.-EGYPTIAN DEVIL.In Egypt, Typhon, whois the personification of brute matter and of purelyanimal life, is hideous. His head is enormous, like aflattened ball in front, with gigantic ears; he has a large,fat, squat body, pendant flabby belly, legs swollen andformless as those of an elephant. The Behemoth of Job(Job xl. 15 ) eats grass like an ox. † He is armed witha tail long and thick as a cedar tree. Now the book ofJob, like the vision of St. John, is an eminently Orientalpoem. Such infernal genii as are there described maybe seen on the beautiful vases of China and Japan. They

• See Fig. 47 , vol. i . p. 162.

+ Didron adds, " Il est tout couvert d'écailles, " but scales are an attribute of Leviathan in chap. xli . 15, not Behemoth, xl . 15 .124 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]are hideous fabulous beasts covered with extravagantexcrescences, and formed out of all known proportions.Such is, then, the physiognomy attributed to the Geniusof Evil in the East. A gigantic, monstrous, composite,incoherent animal, covered with excrescences.This is not so in the West. Here we find less extraFig. 175.-TURKISH DEVIL.vagance. Men are more self-contained, more reasonable.Nature is less powerful for good as for evil; it is un- productive except under the hand of man. The soil mustbe broken by the plough or by the spade, must bemoistened by the sweat of the labourer, be pruned andtrimmed every season, that it may bring forth plants,[D.] DEVILS IN WESTERN ART. 125flowers, fruits or grain. It is man, on the contrary, who iseverything. It is he who does well or ill. Satan isalmost completely transformed into man; these monstrousEastern forms would have rather excited laughter thanfear in our cold, rational, and mocking regions. Greece,owing to the proximity of India, still preserved somehideous forms of the Devil, but she embellishes them withher passionate genius for beauty. Cerberus has threeheads, but he is in every way a dog. Harpies are uncleanbirds, fetid , hideous, but not monstrous. Medusa isfrightful, and yet hers is a woman's head, round which,instead of hair, serpents grow and hiss. And still thisMedusa becomes singularly more human in her passagefrom Greece to Sicily (see the bas-reliefs in Selinonte),where Pluto, Proserpine, the infernal divinities, and thepagan divinities, clothed in reasonable human form, takethe place of the monstrous images of the East.The West is not so imaginative;its birds are smaller and less coloured,its flowers and trees more pale andfeeble, its mammiferæ less developedand formed in better proportions.The elephant and camel thrive badlyamong us, where the horse and the oxdo well. The Devil of the West wasalso smaller, less exaggerated, less monstrous. The seven-headed devilis out of place in our churches, wherethe devil with one head swarms,breeds, and thrives wonderfully.Fig. 176.-SATAN WITH SERPENT HORNS. *Before any constant communication between the East and West took place, and from primitive times down to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Christian devil constantly assumed the human form. These forms varied, but not in any vital point,and sometimes the devil was only a very ugly man.Indeed, he presents himself on our most ancient monuments with a physiognomy shrunken, lank, degradedboth morally and physically. There are no devils pro- perly so called in the catacombs either in frescoes or on

• MS. circ. 13th century. Coll . of Duke of Anjou. Bibl. Nat. Paris.

126 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]sarcophagi; there are no devils in the basilicas, or amongthe mosaics and capitals, but the old manuscripts showthem, though rarely. * In the Sacramentaire of Drogon,Bishop of Metz, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale, we see a devil in human form entirely clothed.He is a beggar, whose unkempt, long, sparse hairs seem bristling up. Rags and shreds of clothing fall roundhis body; this is the devil that tempted Jesus Christ in the desert.tDuring the Roman period the genius of personificationseems to have been more active than in the Gothic, or thanthat from the close of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century. There is a Latin Bible in the BibliothèqueNationale held to be of the tenth century. ‡ Numerousrough miniatures accompany the text. When the abyss ismentioned, a little conical mound is represented dividedby spiral zones, like a winding path. The first zone atthe base is occupied by birds, the next by fish, the higherby vegetables. Finally, the summit of this cone ishollowed like a crater, and from this species of volcano emerges a great bare, savage, human head. This hideousbeing, of ferocious aspect, figures the Abyss (see Fig. 177).Art has translated and, as it were, commented upon thefirst words of Genesis; thus God, seated upon Chaos, whichis in the semblance of clouds rolling beneath His uncovered feet or like diluent mud, undulating in swelling wavesor like heavy clouds . The Almighty crushes this Chaosbeneath his feet as the enemy of Creation, just as Michaelcrushes Satan the enemy of Virtue. God looks forwardand somewhat upward, as if seeing in the future the earthand heaven He predestinates.M. Alfred de Maury (p. 136) observes: " The oldestrepresentation of the Devil in a human form that weknow of is found upon an ivory diptych which covers themanuscript entitled the Evangélistaire de Charles-le- Chauve." Here the Spirit of darkness turns his head and

• In the mosaics at Torcello, Hell, at the foot of the picture of the Last Judgment, is thronged with devils.

On the ancient sarcophagi and the old fresco paintings the Genius of Evil is only seen under the form of a serpent: this is the serpent whe seduced Eve.Biblia Sacra, Bibliothèque Nat. Paris, Lat. 6.[D.] DEVIL AS PROFESSOR. 127howls against the God-man. His brow is armed withhorns, a kind of crook may be seen under his arm insteadof a sceptre; with one hand he directs a serpent which iscoiled round his body; with the other he holds a vasewhence issues a poison that blackens the ground. * It wasonly at the close of the thirteenth century that Satan was endowed with the hideous form which artists have eversince adhered to. In the first representations given ofhim in a man's figure, they confined themselves to impressing a cruel character on his face, and making his hair to stand on end. †Lucas van Leyden, in his series of prints from the NewTestament, represents Satan in the guise of a monk orlearned professor in robe and cowl, as he is indeed oftenAbissus.foFig. 177.-ABYSS.represented in the art of the sixteenth century, and even early in the fourteenth. In the following illustrationtaken from the Speculum Humanae Salvationis of theschool of Giotto, now preserved in the Bibliothèque del'Arsenal , Paris ( No. 593, fol . 15), and on the curious tapestries of Chaise Dieu, he is also a doctor clad in the amplerobes of his profession. In the last instance he shows acountenance wan and wasted by long vigil, study andbooks; his forehead large and high, his chin sharp and

• As Tennyson describes the shadow of the fallen queen,

66 Broadening from her feet,And, blackening, swallow all the land."See for such representations, Missal of Worms; MSS. of the tenthcentury. Bibl. de l'Arsenal, Paris. MSS. in Bibl. Nat. Paris, in 4º, No. 75.Cf. MSS. Bibl. Nat. 6829, in 4º. MSS. Bibl. de l'Arsenal in fo. 34. p. 40.128 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.pointed, his eyes black and piercing. [Thus also has theEnglish poet Giles Fletcher, at the close of the sixteenthcentury, conceived the tempter in his poem of Christ'sVictorie on Earth:-"At length an aged Syre far off he sawe Come slowely footing; everie step he guest One of his feete he from the grave did drawe * * * * *A good old hermit he might seem to be,That for devotion had the world forsaken,And now was travailing some Saint to see. "]

• * * * *

The Behemoth of Job, described in the text as a terribleand monstrous form , is illustrated in Bible Lat. No. 6, in theBibliothèque Nationale. In this manuscript, which is an example of Western art in the eleventh century, we find thisFig. 178.-CHRIST TEMPTED.demon curiously modi- fied and embellished.We behold him completely under the formof a man, and, what ismore, of an angel. He even wears a nimbusas significant ofpower, and he has abird's wings upon hisshoulders (see Vol. I.p. 158, Fig. 46).Here Behemoth isexactly similar to theangel, illustrated in thesame Bible, that accompanies Elias when transported to heaven in his chariot of fire; indeed, they might be takenfor two brothers, and in a scriptural sense they are two brothers of whom one has fallen, the other risen; however, the fallen angel is distinguished from the other by his claws, which project from the fingers and toes of his hands and feet, but there the difference ends , and thegood angel, who is the living symbol of light, and the evilangel, who is the symbol ofdarkness, are painted in the same colours. The evil angel ought to be black as soot, and tofly with a bat's wings like a bird of darkness as it is, andDEVILS IN WESTERN ART. 129yet it has a bright aspect and eagle's wings, as of one thatloved the sun and the noonday.[ But more striking still is Le Diable en femme,' wherethe tempter is disguised as a splendidly dressed, grandly developed woman, from whose seductions the Anchorite ofthe Thebaid is turning away. He kneels before a furnace,E.ROESWILLWALDFig. 179.-TEMPTATION OF ST. PAPHNUTIUS, CAMPO SANTO, PISA.holding his hands in the flame, while his face is upturned.in prayer.The Devil may also assume the disguise of a holy angel,as we see in the following illustration from the life of St. Juliana. *

• Julienne (Ste), vierge et martyr à Nicomédée au Ve siècle. Honorée le 16 février à Cume en Campanie. AA. SS. Boll. Feb. ii . p. 875. Représentée VOL. II.

K130 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.The Devil, willing to tempt St. Juliana, a youngRoman virgin imprisoned by the Prefect because shewould not deny Jesus Christ, transformed himself intoan angel with white clothing and fair young face. StillFig. 180.-ST. JULIANA AND THE DEVIL.horns projected from his forehead, and the nails on hisfeet and hands were prolonged into claws. Entering herprison he said, " Juliana, frightful torments are preparedfor thee sacrifice to idols and thou shalt be saved." "Oh,God of heaven and earth! " cried she, " who art thou thatspeaketh thus to me? " She then seized Belial by thethroat and fastened a rope round his neck. " Declare tome," she said in anger, "who thou art, whence comestthou, and who hath sent thee." Satan, captured, answeredher: " I am the devil! I have done wickedly in desiringto tempt you: but free me, I pray you, I will do so noen prison, visitée par Satan sous la forme d'un ange, qui vient pour ébranler sa foi et l'engager à apostasier. Quatre pièces signées de Th. de Leu,Sadeler, Adrien Collaert, et une copie. Folio 89 du IVe volume de la Collection des Saintes, Cabinet des Estampes de Paris. W. No. 236 et 1024 en rouge, Bibl. Ste Geneviève, Paris, Cabinet des MSS. et des livres àfigures.DEVILS IN WESTERN ART. 131more." Then Juliana, strong in the Spirit of God,whipped the demon with a rod till he was heard to cry,"Lady Juliana! friend of angels, I entreat thee by thepassion of Jesus Christ the Lord, pity my misfortune, DEMONS Fig .181. -TOMB ONHEFDAGOBERT . K 2132 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.have pity upon me! " But Juliana only struck him themore. On this, the prefect sent for the saint, and she approached, dragging Satan after her; thus she passed intothe public court, displaying the humbled demon to thepeople; till, having reached the mouth of a pit, she threwhim in. *The demons on the tomb of Dagobert have the human form, but with animals' heads. This monument standsto the right of the high altar in the Church of St. Denys near Paris. The subject of the bas-relief illustrates alegend connected with the death of Dagobert (A.D. 628- 638). “ A hermit on an island in the Mediterranean waswarned in a vision to pray for the Frankish King's soul.He then saw Dagobert in chains, hurried along by a troop of fiends, who were about to cast him into a volcano.At last his cries to St. Denys, St. Michael, and St. Martin,brought to his assistance those three venerable andglorious persons, who drove off the devils, and with songs of triumph conveyed the rescued soul to Abraham's bosom."†The legend says nothing of the boat, like Charon's,crossing the river. The beautiful monument on whichthis bas-relief appears was erected by St. Louis atSt. Denys.In the Cathedral of Chartres we have the followinggroup of devils in human form, only distinguishable fromthe men they drag down by their horns, and winged,cloven feet. (Fig. 182.)This group is found on the rose window, west transept,Chartres Cathedral, towards the bottom on the left. ]In general, the Oriental devil is a monstrous andgigantic animal; the Western devil is human and ofordinary size; but it is necessary to fix the date of thesetwo so different types, that we may say how and at whattime they remained intact, independent one of another,and when and how they were commingled and modified,the one by the other. Christian architecture throughout every country and period, may be divided into five

• Life of St. Juliana. Acta SS. of the Bollandists, vol . ii . February.

† Gesta Dagob. ( cc. 23 , 44 ) . Baronius (647. 5) . D. Bouquet. Rec. des histoires de France, t . ii . p. 593.DEVILS IN WESTERN ART. 133branches, which, while issuing from one common trunk,present themselves under different aspects.In someplaces Byzantine or Oriental styles will be found modifiedin Latin or Western architecture. While, in Roman architecture, which is a combination of both styles, the Western element predominates, Gothic architecture was a newFig. 182.-CHARTRES. THE DEMON IN MAN.type developed in their midst, wherein some forms maybe distinguished which, though not distinctly Orientalin origin, yet betray an Eastern influence. Finally, wehave the architecture of the Renaissance, which honoursfirst principles, and the forms of paganism as well as134 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.of Roman Christianity. The devil has his phasesaccording to the style of the architecture to whichhe belongs: he is Byzantine or monstrous at Constantinople and Jerusalem; ugly but human in Rome, amongthe Latins; animal, yet his brute form modified by hishuman form among the Romans; human, but taking theforms of the beast among the Goths; and finally, withFig. 183. THE DEMON AS SATYK.the Renaissance, returning to an ancient Satyr, whichhas the feet and horns of a goat, but the body and head of a man. [" A time came," says M. Reville, * " when theidea that the devil had a distinct bodily shape becamesettled; and this form was that of the ancient fauns andsatyrs, with hoofs, protruding legs, hairy skin, tail, cloven

• History of the Devil: M. Reville.

[D.] NOMENCLATURE OF THE DEVIL. 135foot or horse's hoof." The foregoing illustration is drawnfrom a panel of the ivory case of the flabellum or fanof Tournus, described in the Benedictine Annals (No. LXIII. ).This case is believed by some antiquaries to have beenoriginally intended to contain a copy of the works of Virgil, and to date from the fifth century. It is theopinion of M. Charles le Normand that in the twelfthcentury the monks of Tournus used it as a box for theflabellum. * The designs carved in the compartments areapparently illustrations of the Eclogues of Virgil. ]Excepting the miniatures of Byzantine and Latin manuscripts, we have very few monuments from which to derive our types. On one side we have the Apocalypse and Apocryphal gospels, on the other the writings of the fathers of the Latin Church. The latter, St.Martin especially, scarcely saw the Devil in any formbut that of pagan gods, of Jupiter, Mercury and Venus.The manuscripts supply us with very curious Roman devils. The Gothic devils merit a long examination, andwe find the devils of the Renaissance principally in the works of Michael Angelo and Raphael; thus one maydivine the country and epoch of a monument from thetype of demon without much difficulty, as we tell the age and country of a building by its architectural forms.We now pass on to the nomenclature of the Devil. Thegenius of evil has a multitude of names. Satan simplymeans Adversary. Among the Persians he is called Ahriman; Typhon among the Egyptians; Leviathan andBehemoth in the Bible; Beelzebub, Bébérit, Baal, Bel,Bélus, Dagon, Dragon, Astaroth, Astarté, Moloch, Militta,Asmodeus, Salmanasar, Semiramis, in Palestine and Babylonia-the angel or king of the bottomless pit whosename in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but in the Greektongue his name is Apollyon.

• Flabellum, or fan, is a kind of fly- brush used in the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The use of this implement is one of the oldest and least known of ecclesiastical rites. In the East, where food may be covered with swarms of flies in a moment, it was natural that the bread and wine

should be guarded from them. It continued in use from the first to the thirteenth century. See Du Sommerard, Les Arts du Moyen Age, text,vol. ii. p. 195; iii . p. 251; v. p. 231 , note.136 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]In the West, the names given to the Devil are lessmonstrous, just as the forms under which he is shown areless repulsive. The name Dragon is preserved , and to ithave been added those of Satan, Demon, Devil, Serpent,Asmodeus, Prince of the World, Zabulus or Zabolus; hehas even been endowed with the glorious title Lucifer, orLightbearer, just as the Greeks called their furies.Eumenides, or well- doers. The opposite phrase alsoapplies to Satan, for he is Ahriman, or the god of night.The name that seems to have prevailed everywhere isthat of Demon, though, like that of tyrant, which at firstsimply signified king, it was not meant to express eithergood or evil. The evil has triumphed, and demon, whichonly means genius, has been used to signify, and still signifies, a wicked spirit; tyrant also now means nothingmore than a wicked king. *66We must make a selection among all these names inorder to avoid confusion. However, as among Christiansthe Devil is not a single being, but extraordinarily multiform—as multitudinous as the angel-we must try to distinguish him in the midst of this crowd. In the Gospeldescribing the man possessed, Jesus Christ asks his namewhile exorcising him. My name is Legion," he answered.This response signifies the number to which demons mayattain; for here is one who in himself alone is thepersonification and aggregate of a multitude of others.Mary Magdalene, whom Jesus Christ also exorcised,possessed seven demons who were driven in successionfrom her body.We have been enabled by the help of St. Denis theAreopagite to indicate the ranks in the hierarchy ofangels; but such a hierarchy could not exist amongdemons, because of the discord and confusion in whichthey live, disorder being their sovereign order. Miltongives us a picture of a revolt of demons, but if the attemptwere now made to introduce order among the diaboliccrowd it would prove labour in vain. As the Apocalypsebears the same relation to devils that the Divine hierarchyofthe Areopagite holds to angels, it is throughits pages

• In Friar Bacon, ix. 144, and xi. 109, the titles of " guider " and " ruler of the north " are given to Asmenoth.

[ D. ] DEVILS OF THE APOCALYPSE. 137we must seek for any light upon the present question.When we carefully reperuse the Apostolic vision , this isthe order which we believe may be traced throughout.First there is a devil called the Old Serpent [ Rev. xii.9], the great Dragon Satan, the Devil properly so- called,the king of the bottomless pit, the Exterminator. This,in the Apocalypse, is the great red dragon, having sevenFig. 184.-BEAST WITH SEVEN HEADS.Painting on glass, St. Nizier, Troyes.*heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads,and a tail which drew the third part of the stars ofheaven. This is the chief devil, the master of all thosewe shall see afterwards pass before us in succession.Satan has two lieutenants, if we may so say: one on theearth and one on the sea; for , master of the whole world,his power extends over seas and continents. His repre-

• See Ann. Arch. vol. i. p. 77.

138 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.[D.]sentative on the sea has, like himself, seven heads and tenhorns, * but he carries ten crowns, three more than hismaster, and upon his heads the name of Blasphemy; andthe beast is like unto a leopard, and his feet were as thefeet of a bear, and his mouth as the mouth of a lion whichvomits blasphemy.Then coming out of the earth [ Rev. xiii. 11 ] , the agentof Satan is a beast with two horns, which speaks thelanguage of the dragon. This is the third great symbolof the Genius of Evil. This dragon holds the whole world,the sea and the earth in his hands; he gives the leopardthe empire over the floods, and the beast over the earth.Here we have the Satanic Trinity. It shares the sovereignty of evil just as the Divine Trinity shares thatof good.But the diabolical trinity, as the Divine Trinity, has itsministers, its inferior agents who execute his orders.From the mouth of these monsters three impure spiritsnot named in the Apocalypse come forth; they have theform of frogs. They are the ministers of these three greatdemons. They are the agents who summon the kings ofthe earth to fight against God.The army that these chiefs command is composed of grasshoppers who come forth from wells in the bottomlesspit like the smoke which exhales from a great furnace.The beasts that follow in the Apocalypse resemble horsesready for the battle. Their face is as the face of a man,on their heads are crowns as of gold, they have hair aswomen, lions' teeth, iron cuirasses, scorpions' tails pointedlike barbed darts, wings that resound like horses andchariots rushing to the combat. Such is the infantry ofthe Devil. As to the riders, they have breastplates of fire,of jacinth, and of brimstone. Their horses, which vomitbrimstone, fire and smoke, have heads like lions, tails likeserpents, armed at the end by heads which poison and slay.This diabolical company is very monstrous. It is conceived in such proportions as to furnish forms of horror for all demons engendered from it and represented inimages of plastic art.On the ancient sarcophagi and in the old frescoes the

• Rev. ii. 3, 4, 9.

[D.] DEVIL AS SERPENT. 139Genius of Evil is seen under the form of a serpent; this isthe serpent who seduced Eve, and the being in the ApocaDFig. 185. *lypse called the Old Serpent, the Great Dragon Satan, theDevil properly so called, the king of the bottomless pit,the Exterminator.Fig. 186.-ON SARCOPHAGUS, VATICAN MUSEUM.In Christian iconography the serpent appears, as mightbe expected, most frequently in the temptation of Adam

• This illustration is taken from the Biblia cum Figuris, MS. , Bibl. Nat.

Paris, No. 9561, fol . 8a.140 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [D.]and Eve. We see it represented simply with its merezoological character on a sarcophagus of the first Christian period in the Vatican; and again it is representedas borrowing the head and arms of a human being, atreatment which Raphael has not feared to adopt in histurn from the thirteenth century. The serpent has occasionally two heads, one female with which to address theman, the other male with which to address the woman.He also assumes the form of the ancient hydra, whichFig. 187.French MS. , XIII. cent. , Bibl. Nat. , Paris.is only a multiform serpent, and it is converted into theseven-headed beast of the Apocalypse, transforming the hydra into the dragon.Each of the horned heads in this seven-headed beast,which is represented in the stained-glass window of thesixteenth century at St. Nizier at Troyes, is surrounded by an aureole. * In the East, the nimbus is given as asymbol of power; therefore at Troyes, where certain

• See Vol. I. supra, p. 163.

[D.] NOMENCLATURE OF THE DEVIL. 141oriental influences are traceable, the formidable beast ofthe Apocalypse is found with this attribute.Art falls into the grotesque when, endeavouring tofigure the demon, it endows him with a serpent's tail (see Fig. 70, Vol. I. p. 277), or when it paints serpents proceeding from the head of the Devil, like horns, as is shownin a MS. of the Duke of Anjou, Bibl. Nat. , thirteenth century. *In the frescoes of the Campo Santo, the serpent becomesagain the emblem of life, but only of material life. Hebecomes the medium through which the demon drinksthe blood, or rather absorbs the soul ,of his victim. That is to say, Lifein the demon's hands is the siphonwith which he sucks out the souland substance of those who fallbeneath his sway.We have dwelt at some length onall these details; for it is important,when we study a cathedral door, asculptured voussoir, a Last Judgment,or a Hell, painted on glass, that weshould be able to distinguish Satanthe chief from his two principalagents, and these again from thecrowd of lesser demons. The detailed description in the Apocalypse furnishes all the data for this distinction. We have there a complete, complex, monstrous, multitude of thesedemons. A chief named Satan or Dragon; a demon of thesea named Leopard, a demon of the land called the Beast:the three composing a trinity. Three principal ministersof this trinity are frogs and locusts, an army of footsoldiers composed of monstrous frogs, and a cavalry more monstrous still.Fig. 188.-VAMPIRE, CAMPO SANTO, PISA.Such are all the horrible forms which characterise thedevils of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as they appear sculptured and painted in our churches. In thefollowing pages the term demon or devil will be used inSee Ann. Arch. i . 75.142 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY. [M.S.]differently to designate all evil spirits; it is a genericterm, that of Satan being reserved for the prince of the infernal regions.[ In Byzantine art, the demons of the New Testamentwho tempt Jesus, who are cast into hell, who are driveninto the herd of swine, and whom we meet with again inthe Last Judgment, are of all varieties of form and colour.However, as is the case with our Latin demons also,their usual colour is black and blue, the form monFig. 189.-DEMON ON THE CASQUE OF GOLIATH.strous and composite, made up from parts of differentanimals; bats' wings attached to the shoulders; a tailsticking out below the spine; limbs and arms hideouslythin; the trunk fat and flaccid, or dried up like that ofa skeleton; eyes flaming (see Fig. 173); vomiting flamesat every issue; wrinkles and boils on the skin; the facetwisted into grimaces and the limbs contorted.We[M. S.] HUMOROUS ASPECT OF DIABOLISM 143would refer back to Fig. 135, ii . p. 23, the Trinity of absolute Evil, as an instance of one of the most curious demons we have seen. He here presides over an assembly ofdemons who deliberate on the birth of Merlin, who is toassist them to repair the injury sustained by the Devil in the death of Christ and his descent into Hell. *Satan is represented as wearing a cap of flame on thecasque of Goliath in Fig. 189, which would appear to be an initial P taken from some medieval MS. David with hissling and bag of pebbles confronts the giant, and theFig. 190.-AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT.hand of the Father appears from Heaven to protect the young warrior.We have seen that the Gospel, while on the one handit seemed to banish the Devil to regions of symbolism, onthe other, by identifying him with the natural man,showing the heart of man as his seat, brought him intocloser and more intimate relationship with man than

• French MS. in Bibl. Nat. Histoire du Saint- Graal, No. 6770.

144 [M. S.]CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.before. Only in this way can we explain the fact that inthe earliest ages of Christianity his domination was extended, his interventions in human affairs were multiplied. Heathen gods, institutions, empires, all belongedto his kingdom. The Græco- Roman gods became demonswho had usurped Divine rank. From the close of thesecond century, the antagonism of these forces of Satanand the kingdom of the Messiah was summed up in agrand drama, whose climax was the Descent into Hell,the victory of that Power that had been obedient unto death.The absorbing nature of the belief in the Devil duringthe Middle Ages must be clearlyrecognised if we would understandMedieval art. It was the one fixedidea with every one, particularly from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century.The sense of humour which is alwaysallied to powerful character becomes manifest. * Diabolism had its humorousside, especially when a prominent partcame to be assigned to Satan in theMediæval religious plays; scenes in which the Devil is cheated, outdone,and castigated, formed the comic element of the Sacred Drama, and theminiature painters of sacred books arenot wanting here either, as we maysee by looking at Figs. 180, 190 , 191 ,and 192.Fig. 191 .In the fifteenth century, Innocent VIII. issued hisfamous bull Summis desiderantes, by which he not onlyconfirmed and enlarged the powers of the Inquisition

• As instances of such humorous subjects, I now recall a picture of a

devil blowing a bellows in the face of a terrified angel in the Book of Hours belonging to Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI. , No. 920, fol.316a, Bibl. Nat. Paris. In a MS. in the Bibl. de l'Arsenal, the referenceto which I have lost , I saw a miniature illustration of the good Shepherd,who, having rescued the Lamb, is bearing him on his shoulder into the fold,here symbolised by a church. A well-shaven and rather repulsive-looking priest stands at the door with open arms ready to receive the Lamb, whopeers round from the back of Christ's head with a comically doleful ex- pression, as much as to say he would far rather stay where he was.[D.]EXORCISM. 145against diabolism and witchcraft, but prescribed allmanner of recipes by which the devil might be exorcised,such as the sign of the cross, holy water, the judicioususe of salt, the name of the Holy Trinity. In Fig. 192 wehave an example of exorcism by sprinkling with holywater, the priest who drives the offending demon beingarmed with an aspergillum, the brush or twig used forsprinkling holy water. This implement was occasionallyPDFig. 192.-EXORCISM .a fox's brush, as is indicated by the modern Frenchname goupillon, but was anciently made of hyssop, a plantsupposed to possess cleansing virtues (see Psalm li . 7. )[ This illustration is taken from a manuscript in theBibliothèque de Chartres, No. 1380. ]In the thirteenth century it was even thought possiblethat men might be begotten of the Devil in a literalsense. Mussato, a Paduan historian and poet, A.D. 1261–1330, attributes an infernal origin to Ezzelino, adoptingVOL. II . L146 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.a tradition of the house of Este, that a devil clothed witha human body supplied his father's place when he wasbegotten. *The demon is thus described by the unhappy woman inthe play:-"Haud tauro minorHirsuta aduncis cornibus cervix riget,Setis coronant hispidis illum jubæ,Sanguinea binis orbibus manat lues,Ignemque nares flatibus crebris vomunt.Favilla patulis auribus surgens salit Ab ore spirans. Os quoque eructat levem Flammam, perennis lambit et barbam focus. "Lucifer's address to the infernal host in the mysteryplay of the Passion of St. Quentin, performed about theyear 1350 in the body of the collegiate church of thattown, is a curious example of diabolic poetry.66 Lucifer. Diables courants, diables cornus,Diables fallans, diables formis,Diables tondus, diables tondis,Diables touffus, diables maudis,Diables farcis , diables senglos,Diables, diablesses et diablos,Diaboliques poulleries,Sallés hors de vos diableries,Diables, plus tost que vint soulcil.Sathan. Quels tous diables vous faut-il Que vous diabliés en ce point?Dictes quel grant diable vous pointEt quel grant diable vous avés. "+The Devil is represented in the following figure upona seal which we suppose to have been attached to one of those curious documents used, it may be, in the mysteryplays of the fifteenth and following centuries, such as the Lawsuits of Paradise; episodes in the history of therebel angels, which were given under many various formseither in recitation or upon the stage. The allegory ofHist. of the House of Este, Lond. 1681 , p. 138. This Ezzelino was the most cruel tyrant in the Marca Trivigiana, Lord of Padua, Vicenza,Verona, and Brescia, who died in 1260. Note on translation of Ariosto,Orl. Fur. , by Sir John Harington, 1634, cant. 3, st. 33. Dante,translated by Cary, Inf. , cant. xii . 1. 109, note 3.† Ann. Archéol. tom. xv. p. 29.LAWSUIT OF PARADISE. 147the Lawsuit of Paradise is found among the writings ofHugo de St. Victor, who died in 1140, and was firstsuggested by the 10th verse of the 85th Psalm. "Mercyand Truth are met together-Justice and Peace havekissed each other." The subject is entitled , ' The Lawsuitthat Mercy opened against Justice for the Redemption of Man.' In like manner we have lawsuits of Christ andLucifer, and this seal would be affixed to some such document as the brief of the master of hell in defence ofhis claim on the human soul. *In Fig. 193 we have Lucifer throned as king, andDEIRFERIDDBBFig. 193.-SEAL OF LUCIFER.wielding a prong with which he catches sinners, insteadof a crosier, whilst his hands are clawed like those of abeast of prey. The inscription running round the figuremay be deciphered as follows:-" Seel Lucifer Matre de l'abisme d'Enfer."

• See Les Mystères, Petit de Julleville, tom. ii . p. 359; Histoire du

Théâtre François, Parfait, tom. ii. p 301. Among the different early translations of the Procès de Miséricorde et Justice, that contained in theMS. at the Bibl. Nat. Paris ( 12th cent. , 2560) is, at least, mainly attributed to Guillaume Herman. Finally, another translation, which is in theBibl. Nat. ( 13th cent. in 4º vellum, 172 ff.) , is attributed by M. P. Paris to Robert of Lincoln. M. F. Michel has published the Procès deMiséricorde at the close of the Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua Gallica,Oxford, 1860, pp. 364, 368.I 2148 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.The artist who made this drawing has perhaps mistakenthe fifth letter U for D, and omitted to notice the mark ofcontraction over the a of Matre-which stands forMaistre—thus the whole may be translated" Seal of Lucifer, Master of the abyss of Hell. "Fig. 194 shows the signature of the demon Asmodeus,faict 19 may 2624AsmodeeFig. 194.-WRITING OF ASMODEUS.probably appended to a document of a similar nature,Asmodeus being a name for the Devil.This chapter on the iconography of the Devil may fitlyclose with two allegorical female figures, one symbolisingImpiety, and the other Covetousness. In Fig. 195 we seeImpiety as spoken of by the prophet Zechariah, ch. v. 7 ,seated in an ephah and borne to Shinar by two women with stork's wings. This image is carved upon asculptured medallion in the great porch of AmiensCathedral. It forms the last of a series of subjects illustrating the prophetical writings and opposed to anotherseries of Gospel subjects so arranged that this image ofImpiety contrasts with that of Holiness as embodied inthe Virgin's form. *Our second allegorical figure is an image of Covetousness taken from a MS. copy of Le Romant des trois

• The Virgin with the Holy Child on her lap seated in a font is one mediæval type of the source of living waters, the Fountain of Life. See

Caractéristiques des Saints, Ch. Cahier, tom. ii. p. 544. Marie.Zechariah v. 7:"And behold there was lifted up a talent [or weighty piece ] of lead-and this is a woman that sitteth in the midst of the ephah. And he said, This is wickedness. And he cast it into the midst of the ephah; and he cast theweight of the lead upon the mouth thereof. Then lifted I mine eyes, and looked, and, behold, there came out two women, and the wind was in their wings; for they had wings like the wings of a stork: and they lifted uptheephah between the earth and the heaven. Then said I to the angel thatALLEGORICAL FIGURES. 149Pélerinages, which dates circ. 1330. * ( See Fig. 196.) Oneof these pilgrimages is the allegory of the Life of Man- hood, an old English translation of which may be seen inFig. 195.manuscript in the University Library, Cambridge. † Theoriginal text was composed by Guillaume de Guillauille(fols. 5, 30), prior of the Cistercian Abbey of Chaulis, inthe diocese of Senlis, founded by St. Louis in the twelfthtalked with me, Whither do these bear the ephah? And he said unto me,To build it an house in the land of Shinar: and it shall be established andset there upon her own base. "Explanation of figs. in great door of Amiens Cathedral. See Bulletin Monum. xi . and xii. , by MM. Jourdain and Duval, the medallions explained by M. de Caumont, ibid. vol. xx.

• This manuscript is preserved in the library of St. Geneviève in Paris,

and the figure of Covetousness occurs on fol. 61, verso.† See Roxburgh ed. of The Pilgrimage of the Lyf of the Manhode, ed.Aldis Wright, pt. iii . cap. i. p. 137.150 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.century. The pilgrim is met by Covetousness as hedescends a deep valley, and we learn from the description,Fig. 196.-COVETOUSNESS.which is too long to be given here in full, the meaningof this image.The idol worn upon her head is " the peny ofgold orALLEGORICAL FIGURES. 151of silver whereon is emprinted the figure of the hye Lord of the c*ntree. " The false God that blindeth him thatturneth his eyes towards him and maketh fools to bend their eyes downwards. This God by whom she hath beendisfigured and defamed is Avarice. The hands behindlike griffin's claws are to symbolise " Rapine, Coutteburse,and Latrosynie."In the next pair of hands she holds a bowl for alms, orfor the money she extorts through beggary, and a hook,with which she enters the house of Christ and seizes hisservants. Taking their croziers and shepherds' crooks, shefurnishes them with this devil's prong instead, fished upby her out of the darkness of Hell, and this hand isnamed Simony. In the next hands she holds a yardmeasure, purse, and scales. With the measure she dealsout false lengths, with the balances she weighs falsemeasure, and into the purse she puts the ill-won gainsof her treachery, gambling, and dishonesty. Round herneck hangs a bag, and nothing that is put therein canever come out again; all things remain there to rot.We may here insert the following extract from the oldEnglish translation of the passage in which this apparition is described:"... Disgised shrewedliche * she was ... Boystows shewas and wrong shapen and enbosed and clothed with anold gret bultel † clouted with cloutes of old cloth and oflether. A sak she hadde honged at hire nekke. Wel itseemed that make flight wold she nouht for she putte ther inere bras and yren and sakked it. Hire tongewhiche she hadde ‡ ... out halp hire ther to faste. Hire tunge was mesel and foule defaced. Sixe hondes shehadde and tweyne stumpes the tweyne hondes haddennailes of griffouns, of whiche that oon was bihynde instrangie manere."In oon of that oother handes she heeld a fyle as thouhshe shulde fyle brideles. And a balaunce wherinne shepeisede the zodiac and the sunne in gret entente to putte hem to sale. A disch in that oother hande she heeld anda poket with bred. In the fifte she hadde a crochet and

• Rough, churlish.

† A bolting cloth.‡ Gap in MSS. suppie drawen sa langue que hors traicte auoit.152 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.upon hire hed a mawmett * shee bar which made hireeyen biholde downward. The sixte hand she haddelenynge upon hire brokene haunche and sum time shehaf it hye to hire tunge and touchede it."The hondes of my yivinge ben kilte and doon fromhere stumpes† . . . Sixe hondes i haue for to gripe with in sixe maneres for to sakke in my sak to peise meand charge me with to that ende that if i falle adouni mowe no more ryse aygen."

• Mawmet, i.e. idol.

tie. for giving with were cut.( 153 )ICONOGRAPHY OF DEATH.RELIGIONS do not develop suddenly and fitfully anymore than physical nature in its creations. They areconnected by links and chains so gradually modified thatno one faith can refuse to acknowledge that which it hasinherited from its predecessor. Such links are often mostdistinctly perceptible in the iconography of differentreligious systems. Thus, when Christianity had recourse to images to propagate its lessons and to awaken thepopular mind to a faith in its dogmas, it endued Deathwith an individual existence, a language, action, form,special physiognomy. Such a form was not borrowedfrom the Jews, but from Græco-Latin polytheism, whosefigures and plastic images it adapted to newly formedideas. Neophytes borrowed their images of Death fromGreek and Latin Art, not the grand ideal art inspired byPoetry and Philosophy, but only the crude and popularart which was confined to the reproduction of the coarseideas of the populace, in whose imaginations all evil thingswere identified with spectres, larvæ, lemures, whose figures they transferred to Death.Such images form a strong contrast to the wingedThanatos on the column of the temple of the EphesianArtemis, now in the British Museum, which, of all thefigures we have met with, best embodies the classic Greekconception of Death, and which has been thus describedby Sir Frederic Burton. * "A youth faces us with longdrooping wings; his head, with heavy parted hair, inclinesto his left with a pathetic expression, and his left hand israised, as if beckoning. A weighty sheathed sword hangs

• See Saturday Review, No. 897, vol. xxxv. p. 50.

154 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.by his left haunch. . . . The pathetic character [of this nudewinged youthful figure] points to the newAttic school, no less than the almost feminine softness ofthe forms.... Theworkmanship of this figure is not careful. It is a magFig. 197.nificent sketch by a practised and fearless hand; the objectbeing the expression of the whole rather than any carefulindividualizing of parts. . . . This mysterious figure, fromwings and bodily type, has been thought to represent Erōs; we should venture to call it Thanatos. The attribute...ICONOGRAPHY OF DEATH. 155held in the now destroyed right hand was probably the inverted torch.66 But it is the head which most strongly answers to thecharacter of the genius of Death, as conceived by theGreek imagination. A dreamy sehnsucht pervades the almost sexless face; a sadness as if Death himself felt thathe too was but the victim of an inexorable fate, whose behests he must execute; and the lax, unwavy hair isdrawn back behind the ears as if carelessly confined there.The ambrosial locks of Eros* are, on the contrary, curlyand rippled, and hang in tresses on the shoulders, or are knotted in clusters behind the head. We think, however,that the presence of the sword decides the question, and we recall the passage in the Alkestis of Euripides, whereThanatos appears, armed with a sword, ready, as ' Priest ofthe Dying,' to sever the lock from the victim sacred to Persephone ":-Death. " This woman will descend to the mansions of Hades; andI am advancing against her that I may perform the initiatory rites with my sword; for that man is sacred to the gods beneath the earth,the hair of whose head this sword may have hallowed ."The Etruscans have their exterminating angel, who hasbeen designated as the Etruscan Charon. His figure isconstantly shown upon funereal monuments armed with ahammer. His face is repulsive, his hair and beard jagged,serpents crown his brow, his ears are pointed like those ofa satyr. He watches at the entrance to Hell, and withanother genius he accompanies Death. On one sarcophagus, two genii of the spirit-world assist at the deathbed of a wife. On one side a winged genius in female formseeks to draw the dying woman towards her gently whileshe addresses her last words to her husband; on the otherside Charon, or rather the evil angel, holding a pincers inone hand and a torch in the other, prepares to accompanythe dying woman into the dominions of the Shades. †Christians had to seek in the ancient iconology for amore fitting representative of the offspring and avenger of

• Two images of Death hardly to be distinguished from Erōs are men- tioned by Mr. King, one on a Roman gem, the other on a fresco in the catacomb of Prætextatus. See King's Gnostics and their Remains, p. 155. n. 2.

† See Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli Italiani Atlas, pl. text, vol. iii .p. 10, lx.156 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Totransgression, something that should be ghastly and aweinspiring and such a representative they found ready tohand in the old way of picturing the Larva, or bad man'sghost. This had always been depicted as a skeleton. *the Christian, Life, here and hereafter, is the fulfilment ofdivine law. Death, here and hereafter, was the consequence of original sin and the infraction, not fulfilment, of law. Thus such images of horror as they found in thesecountries, where Helleno- Latin polytheism flourished, wereadopted by them in place of the gentle and peacefulThanatos of Greek allegory, coming like evening of aTFig. 198.+beautiful day; and, through a series of links in thedevelopment of religion, and of impressions of onereligion upon another, Death has become a livingskeleton among Christians. The portraits of Satan inearly Christian legend represent him as a hideous, fleshless being, a soot-black skeleton; thus in the apocryphalbook of the martyrdom of the Apostle Bartholomew, the Death demon whom he overcame is described as " like anEthiopian, black as soot; his face sharp like a dog's, thincheeked, with hair down to his feet, eyes like fire, sparks

• The Etruscan image passed down into the belief of the mediæval Florentines, for Dante, Inferno c. iii. 1. 110, introduces-

"Charon dimonio con occhi di bragia."† See Symbols and Emblems of Early Christian Art. By Louise Twining.Pl. LXIX.TRIUMPH OF DEATH. 157coming out of his mouth; and out of his nostrils cameforth smoke like sulphur, with wings spined like aporcupine. "Thus we believe we may trace the causes of the transposition of the features of the corpse to the genius of evil,the association of Death, and the skeleton, and the Devil,in medieval art, *—Death which had been painted by the artists of antiquity under forms so different. This iconological revolution was brought about by the effect of the association of pagan and oriental ideas. But this metamorphosis, once accomplished, did not end here; the personof the demon having drawn to himself the figure of askeleton, soon effaced this to make room for a pure abstractpersonification from which all thought of Satan haddisappeared, and round which a crowd of ancient traditionssoon gathered. "tSoon Andrea Orcagna had, according to some writers,completed the great paintings of Paradise and Hell, in thechurch of Sta. Maria Novella at Florence; the Pisans commenced the decoration of the Campo Santo, the cemeteryof Pisa , the Triumph of Death being included in the series. As Vasari says, "Andrea left a universal judgmentthere." It has been said that he followed his contemporary Petrarch in his conception of Death; that hewas inspired by the poet's grand and solemn song, ' IlTrionfo della Morte,' where Death appears in female form:"Ed una donna involta in vesta negra,Con un furor qual io non so se mai Al tempo de' Giganti fosse a Fegra."Fierce, inveterate, deaf and blind, with sword in handshe slays and stabs and cuts. Greece, Troy, the Roman empire, barbarian and foreigner, all fall before her. Theplain beneath her is heaped with dead, from India, fromCathay, Morocco, Spain, lying in numbers inconceivable.Sovereigns, Pontiffs, Emperors reduced to naked, poor and miserable corpses. A noble company of prayerful womennext appear who strive by their petitions to stay the hand

• See Mémoire sur l'évangile de Nicodème in the Revue de Philologie,

tom. ii. p. 443. A. de Maury.† See Personnage de la Mort (A. de Maury): Revue Archéol. iv. pt. i . pp.306, 686, 737, 784; v. p. 286 .158 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.of Death, but she shears one golden head of the fairest in their band as she sweeps along."Allor di quella bionda testa svelse Morte con la sua mano un aureo crine.Così del mondo il più bel fiore scelse; '19Although Orcagna's treatment of this scene in many points bears a strong resemblance to the poem of Petrarch,yet in the form of Death herself he seems to havefollowed quite another tradition. His Genius of Deathresembles the Parcæ, * the Keres,† black-winged beings withcloven feet corresponding to the Norns, Valkyrie of theOOFig. 199.Scandinavians. Fury-like she advances with rapid flight,

• Quoique les Parques commissent les Kêres au soin de frapper les hommes du coup mortel, elles s'acquittaient parfois elles-mêmes de ce ministère .... C'est encore par ce motif qu'elles sont les assistantes de Pro- serpine, qu'elles conduisent des enfers au ciel, et qu'elles apparaissent dans le sombre séjour près de Pluton et de Charon. Les héritiers des anciens Grecs continuent à attribuer aux Moîrai ou Mîres ce rôle léthifère:

' Ce sont ces trois femmes, disent les modernes Hellènes, qui produisent la peste. " Ib. p. 700.The Ker-black-robed-of Homer. The Furies that pursue Orestes on the painted vases described by Pausanias as well as Aeschylus were old women brandishing serpents or scythes. -King, Gnostics and their Remains,p. 162.DEATH AS A WOMAN. 159a fearful-looking woman, with wild streaming hair, clawsinstead of nails swooping from the sky on large bat'swings, and swinging a scythe in her hand, prepares tomow down the happy forms of those who are seen seatedunder trees listening to music. * Petrarch's Death is indeedFig. 200.-DEATH AS A WOMAN.also a woman, but a woman who may occasionally soften and lead the dying, without fear or sorrow, to the grave, whilein the Pisan fresco she flits in the sky above her doomedvictim like some fearful bat that will drop and fix itself in

• In the allegories of the life of the true monk, given in the Manual of

Panselinos, p. 404, Death appears in like manner armed with a scythe and a dial plate worn on the head, as if Time, her work accomplished, had yielded up her attribute to form a crown for her Destroyer. The trident is another attribute of Death in the Greek Manual, reminding us thatwe are in the country of Neptune. Death pierces the hypocrite's heart with a trident, or drives a flaming trident into the body of a sinner.160 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.hate upon his brow. Petrarch's Death carries a sword,the painter's wields a scythe. Fig. 200 is one of the Didroncollection of illustrations, the provenance of which wehave not yet ascertained , which gives another female batwinged Death, probably taken from a quattrocento manuscript. Her clawed fingers and pendant breasts add toFig. 201. -TRIUMPH OF DEATH.the horror of this image. Death-Mors-was amongst theLatin Christians the queen of Hell, the spouse of Satan.Thus in the apostolic history of St. Bartholomew, a demon is made to say: " But He (Jesus) has made prisonerDeath herself, who is our queen, and even our king, the husband of Death, hath He also bound in chains of fire."

• Fabricius, Codex pseudepigraphus Novi Testamenti, t . i . pt. ii . pp.

679, 680.DEATH AS A RIDER. 161Death, as a rider whose horse leaps forth from themouth of Hell, is shown in the two Figs. 201 and 202, alsoprobably taken from quattrocento MSS. , but illustratingthe subject of the Triumph of Death, * one of the finestrepresentations of which was painted by the first painterCRFig. 202.-TRIUMPH OF DEATH.of Sicily, Crescenzio, on the wall of the courtyard of theHospital at Palermo. Instead of the yawning mouth of Hell to the left , we have the most beautiful group in the

• The reader who wishes to study the treatment of the Triumph of Death in Medieval Art more fully should read a paper in the Cornhill Magazine, September, 1879, by Miss Clerke, where she alludes to the

following illustrations of the subject:-Titian's Triumph of Death; where the skeleton victor is seen leaning on his scythe enthroned on a funeralcar drawn by oxen preceded by the Parcæ. A painting in San Giacomo Maggiore at Bologna. Here a vision of the last judgment represented in an oval forms part of the composition. Didron, Ann. Arch. tom. xvi.p. 170, describes the riders in the Apocalypse on the tomb of Jean de Langheac at Limoges. In the same paper this writer describes the sculptures on the Hôtel Bourgtheroulde, at Rouen, in which the six Triumphs of Petrarch are represented. Here Death takes a third place;it precedes the form of Religion, and the wheels of the Chariot of Death are crushing the representatives of human power in the persons of kings,pontiffs, etc. VOL. II. M162 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.whole composition, composed of the figures of those whohave escaped Death. One woman, who weeps as she con- templates the scene of havoc before her, is said to beespecially fine.The horse, a skeleton form, bounds through the air,while his wild rider, also a skeleton, draws his bow andwith his arrows strikes princes, pontiffs, and all the greatones of the earth, while the wretched and diseased call onhim for deliverance. The bolt will not fall upon them, butamid a merry group on the left, where some dancing girlssurround a zither player, and who, while yet in thefulness of life, are smitten by mortal pallor, the precursor1.8.Fig. 203.of dissolution. Above these again are a company ofyouths and maidens seated by a fountain in happyignorance of the approaching gloom.The framework of the Divine Comedy was not withoutit* parallels in antiquity. Poetry in all time has beenoccupied with the immutable destiny of man, and the wallsof the Campo Santo of Pisa, on which the Lorenzetti andtheir colleagues painted the soul's drama, resemble those ofthe Lesche, painted by Polygnotus, in this, that both areexpressions of the faith of the day in which they wereexecuted, as regards the condition of the soul after death.The series, of which the Triumph of Death was only onechapter, should be considered in the following order:1. The Crucifixion. 2. The Resurrection. 3. The Ascension.The Triumph of Death. Judgment. Hell . The AngelicCAMPO SANTO, PISA. 163Life. This last scene, the climax of the whole, must beheld in view if one would understand the author's driftthroughout all the previous scenes. The quiet mountainside, the hermit life of solitude and sanctity, one old manreading, another resting on his crutches, a third milkinghis doe, while squirrels play at his feet, the monastery inwhich they pass their ordered life, all rise in contrastwith the life of the world, its vanity and madness and sin.The following verses are written on a scroll, held by twoangels:"Ischermo di savere e di ricchezzaDi nobilitate ancora e di prodezzaVale niente ai colpi di costei.Ed ancor non si truova contra lei,"O lettore, niuno argomento.Eh! non avere lo'ntelletto spento Di stare sempre in apparecchiatoChe non ti giunga in mortale peccato." †The whole upper half of the fresco on one side is filledwith angels and demons snatching away the souls of thedead, and bearing them to their destinations. The angelsare graceful and tender in their care of the pure soulsentrusted to them, while the wicked souls are snatched offby the bat-winged scaly demons who, flying or flittingthrough the air, throw them headlong into the mouthsof Hell-the craters of volcanoes belching out flames.Fig. 204. The fresco is filled with such mottoes as this:-"Dacche prosperitade ci ha lasciati,O morte, medicina d'ogni pena,Deh vieni a darne ormai l'ultima cena.99"Since nought of happiness to us remains,Come, then, O Death! -the cure for every griefGive our last supper, and relief from pain. ' ‡

• See Vasari, vol. i . p. 207. Ed. Bohn.

+ "Nor wisdom's aid, nor riches may avail,Nor proud nobility, nor valour's arm,To make thee shelter from the stroke of death;Nor shall thine arguments, O reader sage,Have force to change her purpose: wherefore, turn Thy wealth of thought to its best use-be thine The watch unsleeping, ever well prepared That so she find thee not in mortal sin."-See Revue Archéol. 1844, p. 461 , for ancient figure of Death. See Catal. de la Bibl. du duc de Lavallière, 1783, tom. ii . p. 285, No. 2736.M 2164 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Near the subject of the Triumph of Death, Orcagna hasillustrated an older medieval poem, ' Three Deaths and Three Lives,' a poem which gave rise to many represen- . *tations of which his is the best known.Le dit des Trois Morts et des Trois Vifs first appears inthe thirteenth century as one of a collection of moralities.The earliest existing copy, that of Baudouin de Condé, waswritten about the beginning of the fourteenth century.This manuscript is preserved in the Bibl. de l'Arsenal (No.Fig. 204.175, Fonds Français) and is adorned with a miniature ofthat date showing three youths of noble countenance andgreat beauty of form, but whose hearts were filled withpride. God, to abate this pride, sends them a fearful apparition of three corpses, fleshless, worm-eaten, who confrontthe three fair youths, and the second speaking, tells themto behold in him a mirror sent by God of their future state. "Behold what we are, such will you be."

• This poem has been analysed by M. Paulin Paris, MS. Français, tom.

vii. p. 340. Another MS. copy is preserved in the Bibl. Nat. Fonds, 7292.THREE DEATHS AND THREE LIVES. 16566 Vées quel sommes,Tel serez vous. Et tel com ore Estes, fumesThis subject, which is a not uncommon one in mediævalart, is thus treated on the walls of the Campo Santo. *Three uncovered tombs in the foreground contain corpseseaten by enormous worms, before which three knights,Fig. 205. -FRANCESCO DA VOLTERRA, CAMPO SANTO, PISA.one carrying a falcon on his wrist, pause in astonishment.They are accompanied by squires and huntsmen. On

• See La Danse des Morts dessinée par Hans Holbein, &c. expliquée par

Hippolyte Fortoul, Paris, 1842, p. 33. This " Morality " is represented ina miniature of the middle of the fourteenth century, the prayer-book ofMargaret of Flanders, wife of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Here thethree knights are on horseback as in the fresco of the Campo Santo. Thesubject appears in sculptures on the south door of the church of the HolyInnocents at Paris, Ann. Archéol. vol. xvi. p. 165. Since the invention ofprinting the subject appears constantly as a sequel to the Dance of Death(Recherches Hist. et Litt. sur la Danse des Morts, Dijon, 1826). Neither Lasinio nor Giovanni Rosini in his Descrizione delle pitture del CampoSanto (Pisa, 1837, p. 25) appear to have heard of the Moralité Française,which may have been carried by Dante from France to Tuscany and afterwards suggested this scene to the painter.166 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.the second floor a hermit reading the following scroll maybe seen:-"Se nostra mente fia ben accorta,Tenendo fisa qui la vista afflitta,La vana gloria ci sarà sconfitta E la superbia ci sarà ben morta."The scene next to this in the series of frescoes is that ofthe Anchorites of the Thebaid, and it is possible thatOrcagna introduced the hermit, who does not appear in theoriginal poem-a transition from one scene to the other,from the fall of human pride and glory to the poverty ofthe Anchorites in the desert.reIl Carro della Morte (the chariot of Death) was apageant which would seem to have been the production of a genius not less gloomy and sublime than that of Dante."In the carnival, and in the night of its greatest festivity,the citizens gazed in silence on this frightful scene as it passed along the streets. It consisted of a blackfuneral car, on which were painted white crosses, and dead men's bones. It was drawn by four buffaloes, and aghastly figure with a scythe sat upon it. This figurerepresented Death, and had at its feet graves opening, out of which skeletons were continually issuing. Manyhundred persons, clothed in black, with maskssembling deaths' heads, marched before and after it withlighted torches in their hands. The lights were so well arranged that they fell exactly on the car and theprocession, so that the whole appeared very natural.Numbers of other masks, not less frightful, mounted onthe poorest horses that could be found, with black housingstrailing the ground, carried standards of black taffety, embroidered with crossed bones and tears. The skeletons, intrembling and mournful voices, sung penitential psalms,with the Miserere; and the instrumental music, corresponding to the vocal, added to the melancholy and petrifyingspectacle. "*The Death of man is figured in the allegory of theLadder of the Soul's Salvation, and the way of Heaven.The method in which this subject should be treated is laid

• Vasari, tom. iii. pp. 76, 78; translated by Sir Richard Clayton. Walker,

Drama in Italy, App. p. 25.LADDER OF THE SOUL. 167down in the Manual of Panselinos, and the accompanyingillustration has probably been suggested by this Byzantine model. The ladder of salvation rests against theArbor peccati, whose branches are haunted by birds, and in which a crowned and sceptred figure inscribed Vitamundi sits enthroned. The soul having escaped from the grave, inscribed Mors humana, climbs the ladder, which isso firmly planted against the tree of life that the effortsof the Devil to drag him down are all in vain.vita mundiArborpeccati[morshumanaFig. 206.The Moral Ladder appeared in miniature in a manuscript now destroyed, entitled Hortus deliciarum, in thepublic library of Strasburg (circ. 1160), accompanied byan explanatory text of the scenes following.A great ladder is placed standing on end, and risingfrom earth to heaven. On the last and highest round of the ladder the hand of God issues from the clouds andholds the crown of life for those who mount withoutfalling. Below, on the first round, the Devil, under theform of a dragon, may be seen, holding snares for those168 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.who wish to scale the ladder. Two demons draw theirbows to shoot those who mount; but two angels, armed with sword and buckler, ward off their arrows, andprevent them piercing those who would rise. First inorder comes a soldier accompanied by a woman. Thesoldier is overthrown, he falls upon the horses and bucklersin which his delight has been. The woman of the worldis also overthrown, and falls among the luxuries of thecity towards which her desire has been.A series of examples of such efforts and failures followsuntil we reach the thirteenth round, where Virtue [ Virtusid est Caritas] appears as a young woman with longfair hair and bare head, who advances to take the crownthat God holds out to her. On one side-post of the ladderwe read: " Hos omnes, periculose ab alto cadentes, potestDominus medicina penitentiæ verum ad virtutum culmen restituere. " "These all who fall with danger from onhigh, the Lord is able by the salve of penitence to restoreto the true height of virtue."Christ appears as the Conqueror of Death, in the Missalof Worms, a MS. of the eleventh century in the Bibl. del'Arsenal. Death, the enemy of Christ, is here representedas a demon in chains. * Christ, a kingly form with nimbedhead, holds His cross in one hand, and in the other the endof the heavy chain with which His foe is bound. † In therefectory of the monastery of Vatopedi on Mount Athos,Death is represented as crushing Intemperance, personifiedunder the image of a man who has fallen near a tomb.This Death is horrible; a human form black as night, askeleton merely covered by a shrunken skin dried to thebones. There is a dreadful power in this figure; it holds asickle in the right hand, and a sharp scythe in the leftwhich it brandishes in the air and with which it cutsshort the life of the drunkard; those escaping from himslay one another. This subject is accompanied by inscriptions such as, " Fear the grave; Death approaches;Behold Charon." The Death is in fact not Christian Death,which is either a crowned skeleton, or black woman withher tombstone, or frantic horseman armed with a deadly

• See vol. i. Fig. 77 , p. 300.

† See Miss L. Twining, Symbols and Emblems in Christian Art, p. xxix.See La France, Tillenain.DEATH AND THE FOOL. 169shaft passing in full gallop on his wild horse; or humanform with bandaged eyes and spear which he blindly casts at all that cross his path. All these Deaths are drawnfrom the Apocalypse or fromthe mystic writers of the middle ages. But at MountAthos we are in Greece, andpagan mythology, whichheld undisputed swaythroughout this country,could not at once be oustedby Christianity. Charontherefore holds his place byright in the refectory ofVatopedi, as in the worksof Dante and of MichaelAngelo.The crowned skeleton occurs in the frescoes ofGiotto,at Assisi, where, to the rightof the door, St. Francis,facing the spectator, pointsto such an image. Fig. 207Fig. 207.-DEATH A CROWNED SKELETON ON TOMB.is a fair example of a figure of a dead king rising from histomb at the sound of the last trumpet, such as oftenoccurs in quattro-cento representations of the Last Judgment.Fig. 208. -DEATH AS ECCE hom*o.The spectacles or performances ofthe Dance of Death, so common inthe middle ages, were often relievedof their gloom by the introduction ofinterludes in which the Fool took aprominent part. Such scenes whenillustrated formed part of the seriesof subjects of engravings of the "Danse Macabre." The Fool is seenat strife with his adversary Death,and hitting him with a bladder fullof peas or pebbles. *We frequently meet with allusions

• See Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist. Painting in Italy, vol. i. p. 249.

170 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.to Death's fool in Shakespeare. Thus in ' Measure forMeasure ' the Duke says to Claudio (Act iii. sc. 1 ): —66 Merely, thou art Death's fool;For him thou labour'st by thy flight to shun,And yet runn'st toward him still."And again in Pericles,' Act. iii. sc. 2, where Cerimonupholds the pursuit of philosophy and virtue above that of rank and wealth, says:—“. . . . which doth give meA more content in course of true delight Than to be thirsty after tottering honour,Or tie my treasure up in silken bags,To please the fool and death."M. Langlois is of opinion that Death and the Fool wereintroduced as agents into all the dramatic representationsFig. 209.of France, Italy, and England, acting as mutes, andofwhose performance thatof the modern harlequin isan imperfect reproduction. *In the mortuary chapel inthe Augustinian church ofVienna, the figure of Harlequin making grimaces at Death may be seenin the wall paintings ofthe "Danse Macabre." Isnot this the Fool of themiddle ages reproduced inthe costume of the stage harlequin? †

• Death and the Fool appear in Holbein's Imagines, Cologne, 1566.

† See H. Green, Emblems, p. 472. Didron's illustration is taken from a"Danse Macabre " ofthe fifteenth century. The oldest edition ofthe " Danse Macabre " cited by bibliographers is that of Paris, 1484; but more than acentury previous to this date French miniaturists had already figured Dances of Death in the marginal borders of their MS. Books of Hours in asimilar manner to those of Simon Vostre. A magnificent MS. of the second half of the fourteenth century affords a remarkable instance.It wasenriched with numerous miniatures, and was presented by Louis XV. to Dr. Mead, from whose collection it came into that of M. Ambr. FirminDANCE OF DEATH. 171Although the Danse Macabre, * with its long sequence ofscenes in which Death is seen dancing away with hisvictims irrespective of age or condition, seems to date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, yet occasional instances occur of similar scenes on ancient gems. M. deMaury publishes a curious engraved stone from the collectionof M. Badeigts de Laborde, which represents Death as a skeletondancing before a shepherd andlaying hold of him as he sitsplaying on a double flute. Theshepherd's foot rests upon a ball,while two butterflies , emblems ofthe soul, flutter above his head.This intaglio is held by Mr. S. S.Lewis to be about the time ofHadrian, when such conceits hadsupplanted the truth and simplicity of earlier art; the enFig. 210.graver was doubtless a Greek, who had gone to seek fameDidot. See Essai sur les Danses des Morts, C. H. Langlois, tom. i. 139, 140,253-261; Douce's Dance of Death, fig . xliii .; Woltmann's Holbein and his Times, vol. ii . p. 121 .

• As to the Dance of Death or " Danse Macabre, " it does not appear

before the end of the fourteenth century. The oldest is believed to have been executed at Minden in Westphalia in 1383. Fabricius, Biblioth. Med. Ætat.tom. iv. p. 1. In 1407, Guillebert of Metz indicates the artists of the ceme- tery of the " Innocents " at Paris as " notable painters of the Dance of Death and other works. " These paintings must have been at that time twenty- four years in existence. In 1424, the Dance of Death was played in the ceme- tery of the Innocents. We know how universal this strange subject became in the fifteenth century, though unfitted to inspire any delicate art. This particular illustration of Death's Fool has been already published by M. Challemel (who borrowed the block from Didron) in La France Litté- raire, iii. p. 182, but he gives no reference further than that it is taken from a MS. Danse Macabre of the fifteenth century. In Stowe's Survey of London, 1618, is a contest between Death and the Fool copied into Knight's Shakespeare, vol . viii . p. 303. The fool was a kind of satiric figure under whose garb all humanity was occasionally figured . An instance of this may be seen in the Stultifera Navis of Sebastian Brandt, a gothic publication of the close of the fifteenth century, containing numerous engravings on wood, originally printed in Germany; at Basle and Nurem- berg in 1494.172 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.and fortune in the Eternal City* like those described byJuvenal in the early part of his third satire.†Two similar representations of Death on onyx gems areengraved in Mr. King's edition of Horace illustrated fromancient gems, pp. 20 and 253. Cupid, hovering above,throws the light of his torch into the depths of animmense Corinthian crater, out of which a skeleton,terrified at the hateful light, casts himself headlong onFig. 211.the opposite side. The skeleton canonly represent a ghost; Ovid's " ossealarva," Seneca's " larvarum nudisossibus cohærentium figuræ." Theghosts of the wicked became larvæ,but those of the good were elevated into Lares.The second, a sardoine gem, executedwith great finish in the Roman manner,shows a skeleton, emerging from an urn decorated with cross torches in

• Revue Archéol. vol . v. pt. i . p. 295.

.6 • Non possum ferre, Quirites,Græcam urbem, quamvis quota portio fæcis Achæa?

• * * * *

Ingenium velox, audacia perdita, sermo Promptus, et Isæo torrentior: ede, quid illum

Esse putes? quemvis hominem secum attulit ad nos,Grammaticus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aliptes,Augur, schoenobates, medicus, magus; omnia novit:Græculus esuriens, in cœlum, jusseris, ibit. "•"I cannot, Romans, stand a Grecised Rome; and yet, after all , what afraction of our canaille are Achaia's sons. Their wits are all alive;their effrontery desperate; and readiness of speech is theirs-a flood ofwords that beats Isæus. Say now, what think you, is his line? Why he puts himself at our service a Jack-of-all-trades-a critic, a rhetorician,geometer, painter, trainer, prophet, rope-dancer, doctor, sorcerer.starveling Greek knows all the sciences." D. J. Juvenalis Satyra iii . v.60, 61 , 73-78. The Thirteen Satires of Juvenal, translated into English by H. A. Strong and Alex. Leeper, 1882.TheThis mysterious scene may be supposed to envelope a moral similar to that conveyed in the concluding verses of this ode:"Sapias, vina liques et spatio brevi Spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur fugerit invidaEtas carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero.""Be wise, strain clear the wine; and since our span is short cut off alength of hope. While we are speaking, envious Time will have fled:snatch to-day, and utterly mistrust to-morrow." Hor. Od. i . 11.ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL. 173allusion to the Eleusinian mysteries, and plucking a brandfrom a palm-tree. This remarkable design obviously andingeniously expresses the winning of unfading glory afterdeath, for the arms of the defunct hero are seen piled at the foot of his urn. *ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL.THE images of the soul which Art in all ages has bequeathed to us may be divided into two classes -symbols and mere emblems.The nature of the emblems of the soul among theEgyptians is known from a compilation made about thebeginning of the fifth century by Horapollo, an Egyptian scribe who endeavoured to collect in a volume the symbolsupon the monuments of his country. " How," he asks,"do the Egyptians represent a soul passing a long timehere? They paint a phoenix, since of all creatures this bird has by far the longest life. Again, the soul departingis represented as a hawk sitting on a mummy.'Thehawk is put for the soul from the signification of its name, for it is called Baieth: Bai, soul, and eth, heart,the heart being the shrine of the soul .The ancients held that in death the soul was deliveredwith the last breath through the mouth; † thus Homer,

• 66 diram qui contudit hydram Notaque fatali portenta labore subegit,

Comperit invidiam supremo fine domari.Urit enim fulgore suo, qui prægravat artes Infra se positas: extinctus amabitur idem. ""He who crushed the dreadful hydra and subdued the well- known monsters by the labours which fate ordained , by experience found that envy was a monster not to be conquered till the hour of his death. Hewho depresses the merits of others who are inferior to himself, blasts them by his own brilliancy. When his light is quenched his memory will be loved. "† In Byzantine art the soul of a hypocrite is figured as a serpent issuing from his mouth as he lies on his death-bed. See Manual of Panselinos,or Byzantine Guide to Painting, p. 107. A very common Gnostic emblem of the soul in death is the butterfly crushed bythe winged foot. King's Gnostics and their Remains, p. 159.174 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Iliad 9, speaks of the soul after it has passed the barrier of the teeth, and can never by any means return. Atwhat time an image of the soul thus passing forth wasfirst given we do not know, but the butterfly escapingfrom the chrysalis seems to have been the oldest as wellas most common emblem. The iconography of the butterfly has been so exhaustively treated by Max Collignon in his Essai sur les Monuments Grecs et Romains relatifsau Mythe de Psyché, that little more need be added here.At first the fable of Psyche appeared merely as a graceful allegory springing from the Greek poetic imagination.The name signifies both soul and a night butterfly; thus,by a natural association, theone came to stand for the other,and the allegory was developed. At a later period philo- sophy laid hold of it as asymbol in which ideas of renovation and futurity foundexpression. But the figure was in use as a funereal emblem before Christianity.M. Langlois remarks, " Souvent la figure d'un papillonexprimait la fuite et la légèretéde cette animula vagula qu'enl'interpellant en ces termes,Hadrien mourant interrogeaiten lui. Cette jolie allégoriese trouve dans la gravure d'unmonument fort curieux donneepar Spon (Miscellanea EruditæAntiquitatis, pl. vii. ); l'on y voit étendu par terre un corps,de la bouche duquel s'échappe un papillon. " We giveFig. 212.-PSYCHE IN DESPAIR SEATED ON A ROCK AND BEWAILING THE FLIGHT OF CUPID.an illustration of this curious monument in Fig. 213.On the wall, the wreaths and flowers and vase of ointment, hung there by the mother of the dead, may be seen.This is taken from a marble sculpture which formed part of the collection of Petrus Antonius Rascasius de Bagarris,and a very remarkable funeral inscription found in Spainseems to illustrate the meaning of the whole, where thedying man prays for loving service at his grave that soICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL. 175his liberated soul may linger near: " Also I thereforecommand my heirs to entomb my bones so that thedrunken butterfly may flutter upon my ashes. " *According to M. Gerhard, the genius of death may also be an image of the genius that personifies the divine orimmortal part of the human soul. This close and mysticalliance of the human soul and divine genius reunited bya kind of hypostatic union, was allegorically represented in the tale of Eros and Psyche-Eros being the vital form ,Fig. 213.the loving and divine principle spread throughout theuniverse and animating each being-Eros the mysteriouslink between humanity and divinity. The soul is seenas Psyche led by Hermes, while the genius vous stays

• Spon. Miscell. Erud. p. 8, Tabula iv.

"Cur animam figurâ papilionis fingerent diximus supra. Credebatur ea per os reddi: unde Homerus Iliad . 9, dicit animam postquam efflata est, vel septum dentium, ut loquitur transivit remeare nequaquam posse. Papilio igitur hic expressus viri defuncti anima est quæ avolat. Uxor autem aut mater filium adstantem monere videtur, ut vivat, monstrans ei corollas etunguenta. Vinum enim, rosæ et unguenta complectebantur omnem vitæ voluptatem et delicias. Extat talis inscriptio in Hispania quæ habetur apud Moralem, p. 31 ."Haeredibus meis mando etiam cinere ut meo volitet ebrius papilio ossa ipsa tegant mea. "176 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.beside the body weeping for the dead, upon a bas-relief of Prometheus in the Capitol. *M. Collignon enumerates twelve instances of the figureof Psyche represented as an emblem of the soul uponChristian monuments of an early date; eight on sarcophagi; one on the bottom of a painted cup found in thecatacomb of Flavia Domitilla; one in a mosaic in SantaCostanza, near Rome; and two paintings in the catacomb of Flavia Domitilla. He has failed to notice that remarkable subject--the infusion of the living soul into theFig. 214.human body, in the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice,which is illustrated by Lady Eastlake in the History ofour Lord in Art, page 90; where the Creator, or theSaviour, for he wears the cruciform nimbus, lays the Soulon Adam's breast, still holding it by one wing.In Byzantine art the soul has been occasionally represented in the likeness of a human form, a white child without the Psyche wings, but translucent and surroundedby a luminous aureole white as snow, or, as it were, amass of light solidified, suggesting a material substance

• Essai sur les Danses de Mort, vol. i . p. 66.

ICONOGRAPHY OF THE SOUL. 177transmitted into immaterial. In the subjects of the deathof the Virgin, and of the death of St. Anthony, in theGreek churches, painted after the directions given in theManualofPanselinos, the soul thus appears in size as a littlechild, naked, sexless. In the Martyrdom of St. Stephensculptured on the porch of St. Trophimus of Arles, themartyr's soul is seen in human form as it passes from hisdying mouth into the arms of two angels, who bear it up to God.In the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence, * asrepresented on a small medal or plaque inthe Christian Museum of the Vatican, thesoul of the saint stands with outspreadarms above the body stretched upon redhot irons; a hand ready to descend uponthe head of the rising soul appears above,holding a crown between the signs Alpha and Omega.The conception of the soul as an infantform is of earlier date than the beginningof the Christian era. Various instancesare recorded in which Mercury and Iris †-the divine messengers or angels of theancients—are seen bearing souls wrappedin small bands, just as the souls of St.Amoun or St. Alexander are painted inthe Greek Menologium of the emperorBasil.DOM OF ST. STEPHEN.SCULPTURE ON PORCH OF ST. TROPHIMUS AT ARLES.Mrs. Jameson illustrates this subject Fig . 215. - MARTYRby many fine examples in Christian art,to which we may add that it appears ina bas-relief on the façade of the churchof St. Trophimus at Arles. And we haveject in the illuminated Psalter given to St. Louis ofFrance by his mother, Blanche of Castille. ‡

• Dict. Christian Antiq. , Money.

seen this sub-† Cf. Inghirami, Vasi fittili, tab. lxv.; Stackelberg, die Graeber der Hellenen, taf. xxi. Cf. sur le génie de la naissance, R. Rochette, Oresteïde,par. 8, p. 2. Pausan. i . 83. Cf. Ed. Gerhard, Aus. griech. Vasenbilder,taf. lxxxiii. t. ii. p. 15. Iris était aussi une divinité psychopompe commeMercure. Voyez l'Eneide, iv. 693. C'était comme ce dieu un véritable ange. Cf. Platon, iv. Leg. 717. See Museum Capitolinum, iii. tab. 25.The struggles of angels and demons for the soul of the departed is aVOL. II . N178 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.The weighing of souls in the balance at the JudgmentDay is the office of Michael in Christian, as it was that ofHermes in Pagan art, when the fortunes of gods and heroes were at stake.Fig. 216.- SOUL BORNE TO HEAVEN BY ANGELS.In a MS. circ. 1300, formerly in the collection ofM. Dupasquier at Lyons, St. Michael is represented asslaying the Dragon, and, at the same moment, weighingfrequent subject in medieval art and legend. One such tale occurs inFaits et miracles de Notre Dame, MSS. franç. fonds Lancelot, f. 34, also inthe Life of St. Anthony- Vies des Pères du désert, trad. d'Arnauld d'Andilly.See also dissertation of M. Labitte, entitled La divine comédie avant Dante,p. 89 de la traduction de l'épopée de Dante, par M. Brizeux. St. Fursey,St. Vettin, St. Jean de Pulsani, St. Columba in the island of Iona-allwere witnesses of like struggles till we come down to the scenes in the Inferno of Dante, c. xxvii. line 120, and Purgat. c. v. line 100, in whichDante describes St. Francis and a demon contending for the soul of Guidoda Montefeltro, and the demon is victorious. Again, a like contest is described over the soul of Buonconte da Montefeltro, who says:"Me God's angel took,Whilst he of hell exclaimed: O thou of heaven!Say wherefore hast thou robbed me? "WEIGHING OF SOULS IN THE BALANCE. 179the souls ofthe good and evil man, where a demon catches hold of the scale in which the soul of the good man isrising. *M. de Maury, in his treatise on the origin of the subjectof psychostasis, has shown that St. Michael of Christianiconography takes the place of Mercury in ancient representations of the weighing of souls. He endeavours toshow the linking of those beliefs that bound together themmmm·P.OFig. 217.doctrines of an attendant genius and an angel shade leader and weigher of souls. Howalmost inconceivable at firstsight it appears that the messenger of Olympus shouldbecome chief of the legions of Jehovah: that Mercury,Hermes, Thoth, of expiring religions, should enter Christian mythology. With the Mussulmans also the functionsSee D'Agincourt, Hist. de l'Art, pt. i . pp. 94, 196. There is no allusion to this subject, however, in the Byzantine Manual.N 2180 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.of Michael are said to be fulfilled by Azrael, and with thePersians by Mordad.The following figure of the weighing of souls in thebalance is taken from a vase which forms part of the collection of the Duke de Luynes, and is believed to representthe scene in the twenty-second book of the Iliad, where thegods deliberate upon the fate of Achilles and Hector. *The combat of the gods, described towards the end of thetwenty-first book, was painted on the reverse. HereHermes, bearded, may be recognised bythe caduceus whichFig. 218.he raises above his head in his left hand, while he holdsthe balances in the right, in which are the tiny figures oftwo soldiers wielding lances. These are coloured violet.The balances are steady and equal, showing that the fateof the warriors in the scale is as yet undecided . Jupiter,armed with a thunderbolt and leaning on a knotted staff,stands on the left; a crown of yew leaves surrounds hishead. A goddess, probably either Athene or Thetis, for

• See Monuments inédits de l'Inst. Arch. t. ii. pl. x. b.; Annales de l'Inst.

Arch. t. vi. p. 296.ST. MICHAEL. 181there is no attribute here by which she may be distinguished, stands on the right side; she lifts her tunicwith the left hand, while she waves the right in sign of deliverance and victory.CAA gem engraved by Chifflet shows Mercury seated upona rock, as he is constantly represented on ancient engravedstones. He holds a great caduceus and wears a wingedpetasus; before him stands a co*ck, crowing. The name MICHAEL is engravedupon this stone. * Two Hebrew letterstraced upon the field form the word Ath,signifying time. This word appears tobe an allusion to future judgment. Theco*ck figures as the usual symbol of Mercury; thus Mercury standing for Michael,the co*ck is doubtless represented as anemblem of the Last Judgment, of theday when the trumpet call shall awaken man from the tomb as the bird of dawning recalls him from sleep to activity.UTTINGFig. 219.As Mercury was also shade-leader, so Michael leadssouls into the presence of God. On an agate onyx in the collection of the Duke of Orleans published by AbbésFig. 220.de la Chaud and leBlond, vol 1. fig. 23,Hermes, holding the caduceus in one hand,is seen to lift the soulfrom the tomb in theother. Again, on gemsin the Uzielli collectionpublished by C. W.King, Hermes leadssouls to Charon, or, byvirtue of his wand,raises souls from theShades.† Figs. 219,220.The dedication of rocks and high places to St. MichaelTab. xxi. fig. 85, and in Cabinet des Pierres gravées de Gorlée, t. ii.pl. ccxviii. No. 435; Gori, Inscript. Antiqs. i . p. 1. tab. iii . 1.† Antique Gems and Rings, C. W. King, vol. ii . p. 53, pl. xxi.182 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.is a practice we have before alluded to. The Skelig Micheloff the west coast ofIreland, St. Michael's Rock offthe shoreof Cornwall, Mont St. Michael off the coast of Brittany, areinstances of this custom, and it is a notable fact, as bearingupon our subject, that certain temples of Mercury havebeen replaced in Gaul by churches under the invocation ofPDFig. 221.St. Michael. Thus, near Puy en Velay, the church ofSt. Michael (built in the year 965, on the top of one of itssharpest peaks, the Aiguille), has been erected on the ruinsof a temple of Mercury, some remains of which may still be seen.ST. MICHAEL. 183The numerous apparitions and miracles of Michael maybe read in the Golden Legend ' (De Santo Michaele Archangelo). * He indeed plays a great part in the Christiandrama as in the Hebrew religion. Jacobus de Voraginehas said: " Ipse olim princeps fuit synagogæ, sed nuncconstitutus est a Domino in principem ecclesiæ. " In theManual of Panselinos it is Michael who appears to Hagarin the wilderness and directs her to the well; it is Michaelwho stays the hand of Abraham when about to sacrificehis son; it is Michael who protects the body of Moses from Satan at his burial; it is Michael who appears toGideon and strengthens him against Midian; it is Michaelwho appears to Joshua before Jericho, saying, " Loose thyshoes from off thy foot, for the place whereon thoustandest is holy" (Josh. v. 15); it is Michael who appearsto Manoah and announces the birth of Samson; it isMichael who, when exterminating the people, stays hishand because of the sacrifice of David; it is Michael whodescends to the three children in the furnace; Michaelwho brings food to Daniel through the mediation ofHabakkuk; Michael who protects Constantinople againstthe Persians, and saves the church from inundation, andMichael who appears with Gabriel in the midst of a boat inwhich three monks are seen about to drown a little child,which he rescues and conveys to the abbot of a monasteryon the neighbouring shore.In the scene where he appears to Joshua as prince ofthe heavenly army he is always attired as a warrior inarmour, with a naked sword, his costume in Greekpaintings being generally that of the Roman emperors.He is clad in a complete suit of mail in the accompanyingillustration (Fig. 221 ) from a MS. at Amiens, of the date1197, and we give another illustration (Fig. 222) fromthe Book of Hours of Henry II. , A.D. 990. This manuscript is a Gradual of the Abbey of Prume, and wasexecuted in the lifetime of Abbot Hilderic, who died in993, and Abbot Stephen, who died A.D. 1001. † Abovethe figure of Michael the following inscription may beread: " Magnum Te Michiale."

• See La Légende Dorée par Jacques de Voragine, traduite par M. G. B. Paris, 1843, vol. ii. p. 151.

† See Codex, fol. 48. Bibl. Nat. Paris, Lat. 9448.184 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAHY.The book is also entitled, Liber precum cum Notis Canticiset Figuris.Mrs. Jameson remarks, in a thoughtful passage on thisArchangel, that the glorification of St. Michael may be traced back to that primitive Eastern dogma, the perpetual antagonism between the Spirit of Good and theSpirit of Evil, mixed up with the Chaldaic belief inངང་་་་་་་་་་་་Fig. 222.angels and their influence over the destinies of Man. "All tales of the wars and wrestlings of divine beings andheroes, with dragons, lions, and composite animals, maybe held to signify the struggle of mind with brute force,of good and evil, of life and death, the divine strife, man'scapacity for which and deathless persistence in whichdistinguishes him from the animal creation, and is pledgeST. MICHAEL AND THE DRAGON. 185CFig .223186 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.of his soul's divinity. The final triumph of Michael andhis angels as related in the book of the Revelation of St.John, is our next illustration (Fig. 293)."And there waswar in heaven: Michael and his angels fought againstthe dragon; and the dragon fought, and his angels, andprevailed not; neither was their place found any morein heaven. And the great dragon was cast out, that oldserpent, called the Devil and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world. " This monster is the great red dragon[ Rev. xii. 3] having seven heads and ten horns, andseven crowns upon his heads, another representation ofwhich is given in our first volume, Fig. 47, page 163.Both are taken from the same manuscript, Psalteriumcum figuris , No. 8846, Bibl. Nat. , Paris. This monsterresembles the Lernean hydra, having one body fromwhich ten necks project, each terminating in a head. Asto the ten horns, they are generally distributed, two uponeach of the three first heads, and one on each of theothers. The form of the body is that of a dragon withor without wings, with paws of lion, body of a crocodile,tail and neck of a serpent. The heads are either those ofa lion or a serpent. *One of the grandest conceptions of the struggle ofSt. Michael and the Dragon was a scene only known tous now through an engraving, painted by Spinello atArezzo on the façade of the great altar in the church ofSt. Agnolo, or the Archangel Michael. The fresco itselfand its fate have been well described by Lord Lindsay."The composition, embracing Heaven and Chaos, wasdivided into three great masses; God the Father satenthroned on the summit, in the centre Michael engagedin personal conflict with Satan, that old serpent,' theseven-headed dragon of the Apocalypse, while the angelhost precipitated his demon proselytes over the rampartsof heaven into the lower world, in which, lowest of all,Satan was a second time represented in his new shape,horribly transformed, reclining on a rock, the monarchof the dreary region." Vasari † has described this altar,6

• Examples were seen by M. Didron in the Hortus Deliciarum; the west

window of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, the painted glass, and St. Martin-ès- Vignes, and St. Nizier at Troyes.SeeVasari, Lives of the Painters, vol. i. p. 268. Ed. Bohn.FRESCO BY SPINELLO AT AREZZO. 187whereon was represented Lucifer fixing his seat in theNorth, with the fall of the angels, who are changed intodevils as they descend to the earth. *In the air appearsSt. Michael in combat with the old serpent of sevenheads and ten horns, while beneath and in the centreof the picture is Lucifer, already changed into a most hideous beast. And so anxious was the artist to makehim frightful and horrible, that it is said-such issometimes the power of imagination-that the figurehe had painted appeared to him in his sleep, demanding to know where the painter had seen him lookingso ugly as that, and wherefore he permitted his pencilto offer him, the said Lucifer, so mortifying an affront?The artist awoke in such extremity of terror, that hewas unable to cry out, but shook and trembled so violently, that his wife, awakening, hastened to his assist- ance. But the shock was so great that he was on thepoint of expiring suddenly from this accident, and didnot in fact survive it beyond a very short time, duringwhich he remained in a dispirited condition, with eyesfrom which all intelligence had departed. It was thusthat Spinello closed his career, leaving his friendsin heavy sorrow for his death. He died in his ninety- second year. "When last at Arezzo," writes LordLindsay, " I made anxious search after this memorablefresco. The church has long since been desecrated, butpart of it, including the altar-wall, still exists, partitionedand commuted into a contadina's cottage, and known by the name of " Casa de' Diavoli. " Some remnants of thefresco are just traceable on the wall of the good woman'sbed-room, and in the dark passage beneath it; in theformer several of the angels, with their fiery swordsstriking down the devils, are full of spirit, and evengrace, and Luca Signorelli has evidently rememberedthem while painting at Orvieto.

• See Fall of Lucifer, supra, p. 111, where the same metamorphosis is

represented as occurring.188 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.ICONOGRAPHY OF THE CHRISTIANSCHEME.Ir was the great merit of Didron when commencing thehistory of Christian iconography that he not only workedwith method and system himself, but that he aimed atdiscovering and mastering the secrets of the method andsystem under which the great artists of the Middle Agesdeveloped their art. Dying before even the first portionof his vast scheme, as laid down in the preface to thiswork, was accomplished, the task of carrying it on afterthe lapse of thirty years seemed at first a bewilderingone; the labours of writers in the same field , the AbbéCrosnier, Alfred de Maury, Mrs. Jameson, Lady Eastlake,Miss Twining, instead of exhausting the subject, onlythrew the portals wider and revealed an ever-increasing multitude of images to be surveyed. A clue to thelabyrinth could only be found by closely followingDidron's lead and investigating the system, searching forthe framework by aid of which the fathers of great artpursued their aim. The Christian Epos was their subject.This was the theme for many centuries of Poetry, theDrama and Art, but no epic is perfect without a plot. Theplot is the bone and marrow of the composition, the framework on which the structure may be raised in symmetryand beauty. In the following pages we hope to showwhat was the nature of this framework of the Christianiconographic system, to trace its origin and development.Hitherto the reader of this work may have learned something of the nature of those images in which men clothedthe Deity and his attributes, as of Satan and his diaboliccompany, along with the various personifications of Deathand the Soul. However, here the author was but reviewing singly and in succession the motors and instruments inthe great drama of the Soul's history. We have seen howTHE CHRISTIAN SCHEME. 189men seemed unconscious that the imagery of the prophetsand singers of old, however sublime in words, may produce a very different effect when literally translated intoform and colour, and they carved in monstrous shapes theseven-headed, many-tailed creatures of the prophets untilthe multitudinous mass of images in Christian mythography becomes bewildering to contemplate. The company seems ever increasing in number and variety fromcentury to century as apocryphal legends creep in, andChristian mythology borrows its imagery from variouspolytheistic religions. A system, a scheme was required ,and as it now presents itself to us we seem to see that thehistory of Christian iconography is a history of thegradual development and evolution of an art inspiredby a religion and philosophy advancing steadily withinthe bounds of order and of system, slowly revealing ascheme which, though capable of condensation in such aframework as that of the series of symbols in the paintings of the Sistine ceiling, or the statuary of ChartresCathedral, could yet embrace all creation, all naturaland spiritual law.The conception of this scheme, gradually developed asChristians laid hold of the mysterious connection between the facts of the Old and New Testament, was based oncertain passages in the New, where Christ and St. Paulpoint to the Old as the foundation of the New dispensa- tion. The restoration of fallen humanity in the person ofChrist was found to be pre-ordained, to have formed partof the divine plan as revealed from Genesis, and a necessary result of belief in the overruling providence andbeneficent Will of a Being who conceives and carriesforward a scheme for the perfecting of His work to a resultwithout flaw or speck.The treatment of the religious drama founded on thisscheme varied according to time and place. Five differentsystems of iconography were developed in illustration ofit, which we propose to consider in the present chapter.The first, as presented to us in the Byzantine Guide toPainting, is chronological, the second sacramental, theother three are typical and philosophic as well as historic.The date of the original copy of this Byzantine guideis unknown. That which M. Didron found at Esphig-190 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.66menou was held by the monks of Mount Athos to belong tothe tenth or eleventh century, but was probably not olderthan the fifteenth or sixteenth. It is a copy of an oldermanuscript compiled by the monk Dionysius from the works of " the celebrated and illustrious master ManuelPanselinos of Thessalonica, a painter who," says Didron,was the Giotto of the Byzantine school," and whoflourished in the twelfth century, during the reign of theemperor Andronicus the First. Frescoes, said to be fromhis hand, are still shown in the churches of Kares andVatopedi on Mount Athos. One of his pupils, " wishing topropagate the art of painting which, with much pains, hehad learnt at Thessalonica, * among those who are willingto devote themselves to it," points out the sequence ofsubjects to be chosen from the Old and New Testament soas to epitomize the Divine Scheme of Salvation, and themanner in which the historical events, as well as themiracles of the New Testament and parables of our Lord,should be represented. He also adds the scrolls andinscriptions belonging to each prophet in his turn, andthe names and physiognomy of the principal saints, following the order of the calendar as to their martyrdomsand miracles, and points out how these subjects should bedistributed on the walls and in the cupolas of the Greek churches.However, in this iconographical system laid down inthe Manual of Dionysius, little more is attempted than topresent an abstract of the history of the Christian scheme,by illustrating the successive events which mark the pro- gress of religion, from Genesis to the death and ascensionof Christ, and the Apocalypse.In the systems next to be discussed , of Western Art,history and chronology were subservient to the idea ofthe symbolism of certain events recorded; and the cycleofsubjects chosen was very much smaller than the Byzantine. The copy of the Manual of Dionysius first seen byDidron was in the hands of Joasaph, a monkish painter atEsphigmenou. The work, the date of which in its originalform is unknown, had been extended and completed insuccessive centuries-but the copy in the hands of Joasaph

• ie. Salonica, formerly a great school of painting at the gate of Mount Athos.

THE BYZANTINE MANUAL. 191was not three hundred years old: it had been loaded withnotes written by himself and his master, which notes, indue course of time, would be incorporated with the bookwhen recopied, just as those earlier ones found by thepainters of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries on themargins of their books had been incorporated in the workby them. And so this book grew from century to centuryand year to year. A transcript of this guide is to be foundin every atelier on Mount Athos. Macarios, a monkishpainter, only second to Joasaph, possessed a fine copy of it.This bible of his art was laid open in his workshop, andhis pupils read from it by turns in a loud voice, as theothers painted in obedience to its directions. This recallsa similar incident connected with the early history ofchurch decoration in Western Art, recorded by Gregoryof Tours, who wrote at the close of the sixth century, *where Namatia, the aged wife of Namatius, bishop ofAuvergne, A.D. 423, reads to the painter decorating the walls of the church she had raised over her husband'stomb the scenes he is to depict."In the suburb of the town the wife of bishop Namatiusbuilt the basilica of St. Stephen.† And, as she would fainadorn it with pictures, she used to hold a book on herknees, reading thereout stories of the deeds of the men ofold and pointing out to the painters what they shouldset forth on the walls. Now on a certain day it came topass that as she sat in the church and read, a poor mandrew nigh to pray. And beholding a woman robed inblack raiment, and already stricken in years, he took herfor one of the needy, and drawing forth a cake of bread,he placed it in her lap and went away. But she, despisingnot the gift of the poor man, who had not recognised herrank, accepted the bread, and thanked him. And sheplaced it before her on her table, and every day she usedit for the prayer of benediction, until no more thereof remained."IHodie ecclesia S. Eutropii Suburbicarii; in ea sepultus fuit S. Namatius cum aliis sanctis, ut indicat libellus de Sanctis Claromont. cap. 13. S. Greg.Turon. Hist. Franc. , ii. 17. (Migne's note. )Sic Regm. Picturas in ecclesiis memorat passim Gregorius ut lib. vii.cap. 36, lib. x. cap. ult. , &c.The church of St. Stephen, in which the incident related above192 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.It is probable that the book used on this occasion by Namatia was a manual somewhat like that of the monkDionysius in its original form, and may very possiblyhave been of Byzantine origin. * In the early miniaturepaintings of France sacred subjects are constantly treatedin accordance with the directions given in this GreekManual. This is especially manifest in the Menologium of Basil II. Even were the miniatures herein containedoccurred, was built by the widow over the tomb of Bishop Namatius A.D. 423, and he in his day had erected the cathedral of Clermont in whichto enshrine the relics of St. Vitalis and Agricola, which he had conveyed from Ravenna. It is not improbable that Byzantine art penetrated, evenat this early date, through Ravenna to France; and we read in Didron's notes on his visit to Athens that he found in the ancient cathedral orchurch of the Transfiguration there, many points in common with the cathedral of Clermont, as well as Sta. Sophia at Constantinople.773. Cap. xliv. De Agricola et Vitali martyribus. Horum reliquiasNamatius, Arvernorum episcopus, devote expediit, ut scilicet eas in ecclesia quam ipse construxerat collocaret: derexitque unum illuc presbyterum ,qui, abiens cum Dei gratia, quæ patierat detulit.69. xvi. Sanctus vero Namatius, post obitum Rustici episcopi, apud Arvernos in diebus illis octavus erat episcopus. Hic ecclesiam quæ nunc constat, et senior infra muros civitatis habetur, suo studio fabricavit, habentem in longum pedes centum quinquaginta, in latum pedes sexaginta, in altum infra capsum usque cameram, pedes quinquaginta: inante absidemrotundam habens, ab utroque latere ascellas eleganti constructas opere, to- tumque ædificium in modum crucis habetur expositum. Habet fenestrasquadraginta duas, columnas septuaginta, ostia octo. Terror namque ibidem Dei, et claritas magna conspicitur; et vere plerumque inibi odor quasi aromatum suavissimus advenire a religiosis sentitur. Parietis ad altarium,opere sarsurio, ex multo marmorum genere exornatos habet.Exacto ergoin duodecimo anno beatus pontifex ædificio, Bononiam civitatem Italiæ sacerdotes dirigit , ut ei reliquias SS . Vitalis et Agricolæ exhibeant , quos pro nomine Christi Dei nostri, manifestissime crucifixos esse cognovimus. "(on which Migne's editor remarks in a note as follows:) " Haec est ecclesia cathedralis, de qua Savaro multa observat in notis ad cap. i . libri de ecclesiis Claromontensibus. Unde senior in Mor. s . et Regm. dicitur, pro qua voce editi habent veterrima. Opus sarsurium idem esse observat Altaserra ac opus tectorium, quod varium est et multiplex, sic dictum a verbo sarcire. Parietes autem templorum et publicorum ædificiorum marmore tegebantur seu incrustabantur, qualiter hic describitur templum a S. Namatio constructum. Et quidem reliquias horum martyrum obtinuit,ut narrat ipse Gregor. lib. i. de Gloria Mart. , cap . 44. Eorumdem martyrum passionem describit S. Ambrosius in lib. de Exhortatione virginit. , cap.1 & 2.

• Hist. Eccles. Francorum. lib. ii . cap. xvii .; Patrologia Lat. t. lxxi.

col. 215, cap. 36.BYZANTINE MANUAL. 193only reductions from mural paintings of a much earlierdate, as some have held, still the correspondence of thesubjects with the Manual would go far to showing thatthey both belong to an iconographical system that enduredfor many centuries.The scheme in the Byzantine Manual in question commences with the Prologue in Heaven; the Assembly ofthe Heavenly Host and Fall of Lucifer.Scenes 1-14. The Fall of Lucifer to the Murder of Abel.Scenes 15-20. Life of Noah to the Sin of Ham.Scenes 21 to 30. Life of Abraham to the Sacrifice of Isaac.31-33. History of Jacob.71-75. History of Samuel.76-81.82-84.85-96.of David.of Solomon.of Elijah.of Elisha.DE97-103.104-106.107-108.99 of Isaiah.of Jeremiah.109. First Capture of Jerusalem.119. Life of Daniel.34-43. "" of Joseph.44-59. of Moses. 99 60-62. ofJoshua. 123. of Jonas.99 99 63. 99 of Gideon. 126. 99 of Job.64-70. 99 of Samson.Following these scenes are nine subjects illustrating thePatriarchs, Holy Women, Prophets and Philosophers ofGreece, who were said to have declared the Mystery of the Incarnation of Christ.Thus the " Wonders of the Ancient Law" are set forthin 136 scenes, to be followed by 151 scenes representingthe Wonders of the Gospel; 76 relating the Life andMiracles of Christ; 35, the Passion of Christ; and 40, theParables.These 208 scenes are followed by three mystic subjectsgenerally reserved for the cupolas of the Byzantinechurches, those of the Divine Liturgy, the Communionof Christ's body and blood, the Communion of Spirits.They are followed by the Apocalypse, and Second Comingof Christ, and the Final Judgment.In the 35 following scenes the feasts of the BlessedVirgin, and figures of the Apostles, Evangelists, Martyrs,Anchorites, Poets, Myrrhophora are given with thesubjects of the Exaltation of the Cross, the Ecumenical Councils, and Holy Images. In eight scenes more theMiracles of Michael, of John the Precursor, of Peter,VOL. II. 0194 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.Paul, Nicolas, George, Catherine, and Anthony, are added.These are followed by the Calendar of the Year, and Allegories of the Life of the Monk, the Ladder of Salvation, the Death of the Hypocrite, the Death of the Sinner, and the Deceitfulness of Life.And the work closes with directions as to how thesesubjects should be distributed on the walls and in thecupolas of the Byzantine churches.In this Manual it is evident, as we have already observed,that the scenes from Biblical history were merely arrangedin chronological order; that, in their selection, the primaryobject was historic and prophetic, and that the key to thearrangement and choice of subjects is found in the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecy in the historical eventsof the New. In the West the Christian painters in theCatacombs limited themselves to a smaller cycle of subjects, and, setting history and chronology aside, treatedthese subjects solely with reference to some hidden, moral,or devotional truth which they were known to signify.Thus the events recorded were turned to symbols; a system of such symbols was developed, which was expressiveof the salient points in religion. A hieratic cycle ofsubjects came into use, not necessarily for doctrinalpurposes, but as expressive of religious faith.The cardinal points of the religion thus symbolisedwere the belief in the Eternity of Life and the miraculous power represented in the Sacraments which should transmute the Material and the Mortal to the Immaterial andthe Immortal. Added to these were certain ethicalideas realised in the persons of the Christ as the Good Shepherd, of Daniel and the Children in the Furnace,and in the Call of the Magi. By arranging thesesymbols in the following order we arrive at the framework of the Christian scheme as first conceived in WesternChristian Art:-Baptism •Immortality(Noah in the Ark.Moses striking rock.Assembly at table.Lord's Supper . Miracle of loaves and fishes.ResurrectionWater changed to wine.(Raising of Lazarus.Deliverance of Jonah.EARLY SYSTEMS OF ICONOGRAPHY. 195(Daniel in Lion's den.Triumph over Suffering Three children in furnace.Call of the GentilesChrist and the ChurchCall of the Magi.The woman of Samaria.Good Shepherd.Orante. *These subjects may still be seen repeated with little variety on the walls of the Catacombs of SS. Nereus andAchilles, St. Calixtus, St. Prætextatus, St. Priscilla, St.Agnes, St. Petrus, St. Marcellinus; and their symbolic meaning can be demonstrated by written tradition aswell as supported by the testimony of contemporarymonuments, by comparison of various paintings and other monuments one with another, as also with thelanguage of the Hebrew Scripture and the holy Fathers.tSt. Augustine, speaking of the interpretation of Scrip- tural figures, insists that when we find anything represented which does not correspond with the truth either ofhistory or of nature, it must be taken to be a symbol,intended to suggest some further idea beyond itself.It is on the walls of these catacombs that we are to seekthe origins of Western Christian Art, and the first imagewriting of our religion . These images are held to datefrom, or to have been copied from works of, the secondto the eighth century. They closely resemble antiquepainting in form and mode of conception, and follow theheathen art of Rome gradually, as it degenerates into stiffness and want of form. The painting on the wallsof Pagan buildings and tombs, as we learn from Maitland, ‡is subservient to decorative purposes, and the whole issubordinated to a particular colour on the walls. Landscapes, for instance, are painted brown on brown, green

• It is probable that the type so common in the Catacombs which has been named Orante-a figure standing upright with arms outspread- is

Eastern origin, and this seems borne out by the legend of the figure of a Madonna Orante sculptured in bas-relief at Santa Maria in Porto,Ravenna. This figure is said to have been miraculously transported from Greece into Italy at an early date, and the characters giving the Virgin's name as well as the whole style of the work leave no doubt as to theorigin of this sculpture. It must have been carried into Ravenna from the East at the time of the Crusades.+ Roma Sotteranea, J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, part. ii .p. 48.Church in the Catacombs, C. Maitland, M.D., p. 156.0 2196 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.on green, and greenish white on a red wall. The olivealone retains a certain character, and where garlands andleaf- work appear as part of the decoration, only the most necessary part of the special form of the leaf is indicatedwith bold effect.It appears desirable to enter into all these details if wewould be in a position to form a fair judgment on thefirst images of Christian Art. The scheme to which theybelong was, as it were, the nucleus from which the largerframework grew of such medieval mystic poems as theSpeculum Humanæ Salvationis and the Biblia Pauperum,and Speculum Sanctæ Mariæ Virginis, where we find, inaddition to the primitive symbols of faith in the immortality of the soul and triumph over suffering, those of theworship of Mary, the divine strife with evil, transfiguration, penitence, and the adoration of the Cross.The earliest image hitherto found of this last subjectoccurs upon a gem,'* lately brought from Alexandria,of the purest lapis- lazuli, oval in form, with surfaceFig. 224.BVNslightly convex-a woman kneeling inprayer and with both hands holdingup a Latin cross, at which she gazes fervently. Behind her is the treeof life. "Much attention," writes Mr.King, " has been bestowed upon thehead and features, the part of the composition always the first to fail in theworks of the Decline."The Mirror of human salvation isusually illustrated by one hundred andeight subjects, arranged in groups of four-three types to an antitype-or twenty-seven scenes from the life andpassion of Christ, with eighty-one drawn from the OldTestament and heathen mythology. A certain chrono-

• See Report Cambridge Antiquarian Society, vol. v. No. 2, p. 75, 1884.

"On two unpublished Christian Gem Types." Rev. C. W. King. The author of Ecclesiasticus, most probably a resident at Alexandria, speaks of the seal-cutter's art in the following passage: " Every craftsman and work- master that labours night and day, he who hath graven seals, and by his continuous diligence varieth the figure: he shall give his mind to theresemblance of the picture, and by his watching shall finish the work ...Without these a city is not built." Ecclesiasticus xxxviii, 28, 36.EARLY SYSTEMS OF ICONOGRAPHY. 197logical sequence is preserved in the events of our Lord'slife, chosen for antitypes, which is quite absent in the selection of the types, the arrangement of which isentirely subservient to their moral significance and prophetic character. In the selection of these subjects the idea of presenting religion as a divine scheme is wellthought out. The types of fallen, suffering, and redeemed humanity are pictures painted, as it were, on the background of the life of Christ, and the first scene in thedrama, the type behind all types, is the Fall of Lucifer and the rebel angels; just as in Milton's poem the origin of evil is removed into the dim vista of pre-Adamite ages.The New Testament history supplies the main features of the plot to which the Old Testament events are merely subsidiary.The first six scenes are devoted to the story of themiraculous conception and birth of Christ and the messageto the Magi, proclaiming the breadth and universality of the scheme of redemption. Next comes the act in theVirgin's life that signifies her humility and obedience to law. In the scenes selected from the life of Christ afterbaptism, we have a sequence of symbolic acts that correspond with the phases through which the Christian soulpasses in the warfare with evil, and the extension of itspower, as one victory after another is gained , till life eternalis restored. Close following on the dedication of his life to His Father's cause * comes the divine strife of the moraland spiritual with the physical man; † and, consequent onthe victory gained, is the power to bid the dead ‡ become aliving soul-the power to transfigure the thought of deathitself to joy.§ Penitence sits in peace at those feet shehas bathed in her tears, and the temple is cleansed.TThese are the five acts into which the mission of Christ iscondensed. Then the narrative is resumed; the passion,death, and resurrection-the conspiracy, betrayal, distrust,judgment, profanation, self-offering, sacrifice, and the

• The Baptism of Christ.

The Temptation of Christ.The Raising of Lazarus.§ The Transfiguration.Mary Magdalene at the feet of Christ.¶ Christ driving out the money-changers from the temple.198 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.wwwFig .225MIRROR OF HUMAN SALVATION. 199individual death by which is purchased the release of the human soul from hell and its restoration to eternal life.The spirit is caught up in the mantle of God, and the pure woman, into whose own soul also the sword hadentered, is crowned by the Saviour's hand.We have considered these facts in the life of Christ,which became the leading subjects in Christian Art, as aseries of symbolic acts, the true intention and meaning ofwhich is in many instances helped out and explained bythe types chosen as their background-each group thusarranged in skeleton form, by the author of the text, tobe hereafter thought out and worked out by the painterwho has to handle it. These selected scenes became thespecial themes of medieval dramatists and painters, andin cases where a question may arise at the present day asto the significance of a particular subject or symbol inChristian Art, a clue to its solution may often be foundby reference to the types in the Biblia Pauperum, and thetext that accompanies these types. Thus it has been askedof the crown of thorns, Was it significant of physicaltorture, or was it placed in mere mockery upon the sacredhead? Had it been the former, then some instance ofviolence would have formed the type for this subjectwhich is the antitype; but, on the contrary, the typeschosen are cases of mockery and profanity, the sin ofHam, and the mockery of the prophet Elisha by thechildren. It is true that no more forcible types of torturecould be found than that of a father profaned, or the hateof a child, but it is moral, not physical torture. Again,in the Descent of Christ into Hell, the moral significanceof the subject is only pointed out by the types. (Fig. 225.)The spirits that await the Christ are in the jaws of Death.The Saviour, bearing His bannered cross with one hand,lifts them upwards with the other. Death is representedas a monster with a lion's head. The type to the right isSamson struggling with the Lion, that to the left, Davidslaying Goliath-subjects signifying the redemption ofIsrael, often used as types of Christ's victory over Satan inthe Temptation, and His final conquest in death. Here, then ,the moral significance of the subject is indicated by thetypes chosen, which correspond to those tales of heathen200 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.mythologies of the wars and wrestlings of man withanimals real or imaginary, signifying the strife of mindwith brute force, of good and evil, of moral life and moraldeath—the divine strife, which, once seen in a human face,once read in a human heart, is the revelation of all that isdeepest in human nature. Here the author points to theevent upon the cross as the climax of this divine strife, thecrucial test, as it is also the pledge of the soul's divinity,the evidence of divine grace that gives warrant of immortality. *The coincidence of the types in the background of theTemptation of Christ and those of the Descent into Hellis a remarkable feature in these works. In the first, thetypes are Daniel and the Dragon, David and Goliath,Theseus and the Minotaur. In the second, Samson andthe Lion, Banaias and the Lion, David and Goliath. Inthis we are reminded of Milton's selection of the Temptation rather than the Crucifixion as the climax of hisgreat poem-the event which marked the victory anddeath, of which the physical death on the cross was thefinal symbol. In the Angels' Anthem at the close ofMilton's poem we find the clue to this poet's ParadiseLost and Regained.

• These mystic and ascetic poems seem to be drawn from the Bible Historiale and livres de clergie, i.e. science, of the middle ages, which formed a class of sacred and doctrinal encyclopædias. A few words on the

bibliography of these texts must be added here to show their claim to be considered as the foundation of the mediæval Christian drama. The textof the Mirror of Human Salvation is a poem of much greater length than that of the Biblia Pauperum.Brunet, speaking of the Speculum Hum. Sal. , says, " Poème ascétique,en vers rimés, d'une latinité barbare, sur les sujets bibliques. Plusieurs .MSS. portent la date de 1324, qui est peut-être aussi celle de la composi tion de l'ouvrage lequel, dans les manuscrits cités, est divisé en 45 chapitres et orné de 192 figures. Manuel du Libraire, tom. 5me, 1re partie, Paris,1863.Three MSS. of the Speculum are preserved in the library of Vienna,held by M. Denis to belong to the fourteenth century. See Denis, Codices Manuscripti Theologici Bibliothecæ Palatinæ Vindobonenses, col. 439, 2218,2322. Vindobonae, 1793-95. In fol.The British Museum possesses four MSS. of the Speculum, 1st, Vesp.E. 1 , Cotton; 2nd, Arundel, No. 120; 3rd, Harleian, No. 26; 4th, No. 16,578 Add. MSS.MIRROR OF HUMAN SALVATION. 201"Now thou hast avengedSupplanted Adam, and, by vanquishing Temptation, hast regained lost Paradise,And frustrated the conquest fraudulent.He never more henceforth will dare set footIn Paradise to tempt; his snares are broke.For, though that seat of earthly bliss be failed,A fairer Paradise is founded nowFor Adam and his chosen sons, whom thou,A Saviour, art come down to reinstal:Where they shall dwell secure, when time shall be,Of tempter and temptation without fear.

• *

Thus they the Son of God, our Saviour meek,Sung victor, and, from heavenly_feast refresh'd,Brought on his way with joy. He, unobserved,Home to his mother's house private returned. "The correspondence of these Christian types withheathen is curiously illustrated by a gemand coin, the onerepresenting Christ, the other, a tetradrachm, Herculesstruggling with a human-headed serpent (Fig. 227-8). Inthe first, Christ, as the Good Shepherd, is about to bruiseFig. 226.the serpent's head with a staff, tipped with the sacred monogram. In the second, Hercules firmly plants his foot onthe human-headed hydra's tail, just as Christ does on theserpent's, which curls up into the field behind him and terminates as a barbed arrow-head. * See Fig. 228.

• See Report of Cambridge Antiquarian Society, vol . v. No. 2, p. 82:

"On two unpublished Christian Gem-types." Rev. C. W. King, M.A.202 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.The text of the Biblia Pauperum* consists of passages inprose and verse, with quotations from the prophets andpsalmists relating to the types and antitypes of HolyScripture represented in each triptych. A Leonine versetLENTINIANGOMOBFig. 227-8.accompanies each picture. The author who conceivedthis book and wrote these verses is unknown, althoughSt. Ansgar, the Apostle of the North, is believed by many to have originated it. ‡ He was a monk in the monastery

• The text of the Biblia Pauperum was copied, and the scenes drawn therein were represented on the convent windows of Hirschau A.D. 1085,

when the new cloister with its forty windows was erected. In the year1180, a manuscript of the Biblia Pauperum was extant in the Convent of Tegernsee illustrated with figures drawn by the hand of some unknown artist. Another manuscript is referred to by C. B. J. Hugo, the keeper of the library of Wolfenbüttel:-" Certum hic liber qui dudum ante inven- tam typographiam in MS. extitit, olim appellabatur Biblia Pauperum ut constat e codice seculi xii. vel xiii. , sed 38 modo figuras continenti, biblio- thecæ Guelpherbitanæ."It is certain that this book, which appeared in MS. long before the in- vention of printing, was formerly called Biblia Pauperum, as it consists of a codex of the twelfth or thirteenth century, but containing only 38 figures, in the library of Wolfenbüttel.† Ameasure much used by writers in the middle ages. It consists ofaLatin hexameter, of which the last foot rhymes with the end of the first hemistich.In an old copy of the xylographic Biblia Pauperum at Florence, there is a Latin entry to the effect that St. Ansgar wrote this book for the conversion of pagans, and that it was entirely composed of signs. The first manuscript copy of which there is any authentic description was written in the old Saxon-Danish tongue. Bircherodius had seen a part of thisMS. and thus describes it: " I was recently told that a certain man living in the country had a refectory hung with elegantly figured parchments.I sent thither and obtained the same to the number of eleven and in the form of full folio. The leaves were adorned on each side with figuressatisfactorily large, and most beautiful Bible stories in all colours inevery page, types from the Old Testament of several subjects, with theantitypes out of the New, and the prophecies relating to them: in this order, above are seen two, and below also are two prophets of the OldBIBLIA PAUPERUM. 203of Corbey in Germany, born A.D. 801 , who, in the reign of the emperor Louis the Pious was sent on a mission tothe Danes.The texts referred to accompany the drawings of thesubjects, which are arranged in three compartments on each page, the pictures being set in an architectural framework. The subject taken from the Life of Christ, i.e. theantitype, being in the centre, the types from the OldTestament are placed at each side, with two figures of prophets and psalmists above and below. The Leonine.verses on scrolls winding through the composition explainthe subjects. The architectural disposition of the triptychcontaining these designs suggests the idea that they wereintended for pattern books for the painters of churchwindows or decorators of cloistered walls. When Ugolinoda Sienna and Pisano worked in the Duomo d'Orvieto it isvery plain that they followed the general plan laid out forthem in some such works, as well as did the sculptors inSan Miniato in Florence, and Santa Maria, a small andnow disused basilica erected in the sixth century atToscanella, N.W. of Rome.Manuscript copies with original paintings in miniatureof these two works-the Bible of the Poor, and the MirrorTestament, as it were in converse one with another, painted uncommonly well, and showing their prophecies one to another."At the sides of these are seen pairs of stories of the Old Testament writtenbeautifully and accurately in the ancient Saxon-Danish tongue, with apicture of the same portrayed in vivid and pleasing colours, and in the middle of the page is seen a certain story of the New Testament, or the antitype of the rest, depicted with no slight skill; e.g. one page has, above,David and Isaiah, below Job and Anna showing each to the other by turns their sayings or prophecies concerning the resurrection of the dead; on the right side is the story of the dead boy raised to life by Elijah, written down as elegantly as it is painted; on the left the story of the boy restored to life by Elisha is represented as well by letters (i.e. in writing) as in pleasing colours. In the middle of the page Christ calling forth Lazarus from the dead, with a crowd of men and women standing round, is set forth with like skill. So another page treats of the remission of sins, with the most beautiful figures of Nathan absolving David from his sin, of Moses absolv- ing Miriam, and of Christ absolving Mary Magdalene, with writtenstories subjoined. " De Deperditis Septentrionalium Antiquitatibus et maxime Gotho-cimbricis. See Westphalen, Monum. inedit. rerum Germanicarum.Folio. Lipsiæ, 1739, tom. iii. p. 698. See Fiorillo, Geschichte der Zeich- nenden Künste in Deutschland, Hanover, 1815, 8vo. Meerman, OriginesTypographicæ, Haga Comit. 1765, 4to.204 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.ofHuman Salvation —are extremely rare. Of the first, onebeautiful example, with miniatures of the early Dutchschool, is preserved in the British Museum, King's MS. 5.A. 1 , d. 12.

Two Italian manuscripts of the Mirror with miniature paintings of the school of Giotto may be seen inParis. The first, which dates circ. 1300, is preserved inParis in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Suppl. Lat. 9584.Examples of the miniatures in this MS. have appeared inthe present work. The Christ in an elliptical aureole;God the Father; † Jesus ‡ showing his wounds to the Father.The second, equally beautiful if not more so, is alsoin Paris in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal ( Theol. Lat.593); it contains 150 miniatures and 590 figures. Twoillustrations from this work appear in the precedingpages, one being a portion of the painting of the Fall ofLucifer, the other a scene in the Temptation of our Lord,where the Devil appears in the garb of a professor (Fig.178 supra). This manuscript bears the date 1324, andthe miniatures, two of which appear at the head of eachpage, have been attributed to Taddeo Gaddi by some, andto Giotto by others. We translate the passage at theopening of this book:--"Here begins the proem of a certain new compilationbrought out in the year of the Lord 1324, but the authoris in humility silent as to his name.The title or name ofthe work is Speculum Humanæ Salvationis." § Then followsan epitome of the contents, in which we noticed one curiouserror. In place of " Jephtha sacrifices his daughter," weread, " Joseph sacrifices his son, " fol. 7 verso. at fol. 8verso. Type 3 has been erased, and a different subject,painted in a very inferior manner, inserted. The MS. ||is a small folio, of forty-two folios of two columns in

• Vol. i. p. 24, fig. 2. † Ib. p. 64, fig. 42. ‡ 7b. p. 304, fig. 79.

§ "Incipit phemium cuidam nove 3pilationis edite stanno dñi мcccxxiv. ,nom uő autoris hūilitate siletur. Sz titulus siue nom opis est Speculmhumane saluationis. " Renouvier has copied the first lines of this Italianmanuscript very well. See Hist. de l'origine de la Gravure dans les Paysbas et en Allemande, p. 88, n. 2. A second Speculum Humanæ Salvationisis preserved in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, No. 40, but this is only copied by hand from a block book." Le plus ancien MS. que j'ai vu, " says Heineken, " me paroit être du douzième siècle. " This, with two other MSS. of the Speculum, is preservedMIRROR OF HUMAN SALVATION. 205vellum, two miniatures at the head of each page, sothat, as the volume lies open, four scriptural subjectsare displayed, the first being the antitype, the following three the types. In Les Arts Somptuaires of Louandreand Seré, coloured drawings on an enlarged scale are given from three of these miniatures. The first is oneof the types for the adoration of the three Kings-thethree warriors bringing the water of the cistern to David. * Here one figure is clothed in complete armourof wrought iron, while the other two warriors are clothedin mail covered by a tight jerkin; the water- vases, as well as the steel helmet with broad leaf, are peculiar to Italy.The next subject copied by Louandre is the chastisem*ntof Heliodorus, one of the types of Christ driving out themoney-changers from the temple. Heliodorus, who isbeing flogged with a whip of three knotted lashes, liesprostrate on the ground. The angels sent to execute hispunishment are represented as wingless and in merely human forms: one wears a Tuscan head-dress. The nextsubject is the escape of Lot and his family from Sodom,one of the three types of the release of the souls fromHell. The two girls walk with virginal serenity by theside of their aged father; their character, added to that ofsevere majesty in the angel behind, certainly recalls themural paintings of Giotto. Everything tends to confirmthe belief that in these miniatures we have examples ofthe most beautiful thirteenth or fourteenth century art ofItaly, the same elegance and simplicity of outline, thesame profound yet naïf sentiment, and we may well becorrect in our supposition that these beautiful compositionsare from the hand of Giotto, b. 1276, d. 1337, or TaddeoGaddi, b. 1300, d. 1366.Thus far we have dealt with the authorship of these texts, it now remains to be seen to what schools theminiature paintings (varying in number from 100 to 160)which illustrate them may be attributed; and thisin the Vienna library. See M. Denis, Codices Manuscripti TheologiciBibliotheca Palatinæ Vindobonensis, coll. 439, 2218, 2322; Vindobonæ,1793-95, in fol . Four MSS. of the Speculum are preserved in the British Museum, one of which, written in 1370 by Conradus de Alzeya, has been published by M. Berjeau.

• 1 Chron. xi. 15. This subject has been misnamed Esther Enthroned,

206 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.question is of no little weight in the history of Christianiconography, when we reflect that these books werefollowed in the mural paintings, the stained glasswindows, the sculpture and the religious drama of theMiddle Ages. The natural result of adherence to such asystem of illustration as this laid down in the Speculumwas the development of certain established symbols,sacred types of phases in the history of the moral strifeand victory of humanity, of the mysteries of birth anddeath, and of the fall and redemption of man. For theyoffered a series of scenes from the history of the Jews asa nation, such as should serve as examples to mankindas individuals; these types all finding their fulfilmentin the person of Christ, all again to be reflected in thespiritual experiences of each and all of His followers.Yet, while in these books we have scriptural subjects,thus selected and grouped according to a certain preconceived plan, yet the treatment of such was left tothe knowledge and individual power of the painter.There is much evidence of the fact that it was owing tothe number and variety of such books that Italy andFrance succeeded in shaking themselves free of theparalysing traditions of Byzantinism and developingwhat of original thought lay in the mind of the artist,who we may imagine could with comparative freedombest work out his own conceptions at first in the quiet ofhis chamber and at his desk. *In France, as in Italy, mural painters sought in manuscript miniatures for their designs. † In Pisa, whence thea

• The art of miniature painting was practised at a very early period in Italy, as we know from the beautiful examples of the third and fourth century in the Vatican Virgil. It was especially encouraged by the Carlovingian emperors, and also much cultivated in Paris before the thirteenth century, as we know from Dante, " quell' arte ch' alluminare è

chiamata in Parisi. " (Purg. c. xi. 81.) Indeed, the French excel the Italian miniaturists as colourists.He Mi-† Jean Costa in France was favourite painter of King John. He began to work in 1349. He worked alone, leaving nothing to his pupils.sought in manuscript miniatures for models for his mural paintings.niatures were too often taken as models by mural painters, hence a drynessand minute detail in these life-size subjects which should only characteriseminiatures. France was especially the home of miniature painting. Dante8Kugler, Handbook, p. 20, refers to the Bible ofSt. Paolo fuori le mure, pre- served in San Calisto in Trastevere See D'Agincourt, Peinture, pp. 40-45.MINIATURE PAINTING. 207art spread over Tuscany, were miniature painters, who,"transferring their art from small to large works, " likeFranco of Bologna, " betook themselves to painting on wallsand panels " (see Lanzi, Painting in Italy, vol. i. p. 37,ed. Bohn). This Franco, founder of the Bolognese school,was himself the pupil of the miniature painter Oderigi ofGubbio, who worked long at Bologna. He whom Dante hails in Purgatory:-" Art thou not Oderigi? Art not thou Agobbio's glory, glory of that art Which they of Paris call the limner's skill?' Brother! ' said he, with tints, that gayer smile,Bolognian Franco's pencil lines the leaves." "Some Italian schools took their origin, without anyByzantine aid or example, from such miniature painters,who in the twelfth century formed a very distinct class.Treviso and other minor cities gave birth to a style whichmay be termed national, and which owed much of itsoriginality to the miniature painters who improved theirtalent by drawing from the life and not from any Greekor Italian master, whether Panselinos or Giotto. To thisclass belong M. Paolo, * the earliest painter in this nationalmanner, circ. 1300. Giottof himself was a miniature paintermakes illumination an entirely Parisian art. However, there is very noble design in some Italian illuminated books. It is probable that Dantewas familiar with some such text as that of the Biblia Pauperum, since inthe series of sculptures described by him among the bas-relief on thesecond cornice of Purgatory were the subjects forming part of that series.The Annunciation, The Ark drawn to the house of Obed-edom, Daviddancing before the Ark, Michal deriding David, which he tells us were"so exactly wrought With quaintest sculpture, that not there alone Had Polycletus, but e'en nature's self Been shamed. "

• A record of this painter exists in a parchment dated 1346, and

examples of his work may be seen on the front of the great altar of St. Mark's and in the Sacristy of the Padri Conventuali at Vicenza, dated 1333. See Lanzi, vol . ii . p. 77.† Giotto began by studying the art di minio, i.e. the art of painting with a peculiar red colour early applied to the ornamenting and illuminating of MSS. , hence the derivation of the word miniature, and one of the minor peculiarities which differentiates his work from that of the Byzantine schools is the adoption of this delicate pale red in place of the darker tints of the former school.208 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.who gave a great impetus to his art as well as TaddeoGaddi, after whose death the fraternity of the Camal- dulites furnished some remarkable miniaturists such asD. Silvestro. But it was in Mantua* that this methodreached its highest perfection , and in the school of Giulio Romano where Clovio was trained and whence the artspread throughout Lombardy.Among the artists of Italy who imitated or copied thesubjects in the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis are Ugolinodi Prete Ilario, G. Pisano, Orcagna, and Taddeo Gaddi. †The frescoes of the Capello del Corporale at Orvietoand some scenes painted on the wall of the tribune in thesame cathedral, the bas- reliefs of Giovanni Pisano,framed in by Tuscan pillars like those that enclose thesubjects in the Biblia Pauperum, all correspond with thesebooks of types and antitypes. They were probably begun in 1290. The story of the Creation, the Fall and Expulsion, the fratricide of Cain, are ably told and wellcontrasted with the scenes of Mercy and of Judgmentin the new. Our Lord is seen attended by two angelsthroughout the work of Creation, and their floatingattitudes may have suggested to Ghiberti his exquisiteamplification of this idea on one of the Gates of theFlorence Baptistery. ‡Avolume containing a hundred miniatures, examples ofItalian Art in the thirteenth century, was secured someyears ago by the late Sir William Boxall, who presented it to Lord Coleridge. This is a fragment of an originalcopy of the Speculum Sancte Marie Virginis and SpeculumHumane Salvationis, the textof which was written byJoannes Andreas de Bologna (circ. 1270-1348). Theminiatures appear to belong to the same early date, andtheir origin may perhaps be traced to some painter of the school of Siena. •In Germany the number of artists whose names aresaid to be connected with the Speculum and Biblia

• See the Anthem Book preserved at S. Benedetto in Mantua, one of

the most ancient remains of this art existing.See in the Sacristy of the Vatican the representation in miniature ofthe Acts of St. Peter and St. Paul, with some representations of the lives of our Saviour and various saints.Lord Lindsay, vol. ii. p. 121.MINIATURE PAINTING. 209Pauperum are very numerous: Van Liesborn, QuentinMatsys, Lucas van Leyden, Joachim Patenier, Albert Dürer, Hans Schæuffelein , Joh. Memlinc, MartinSchoen. The Annunciation painted in 1465 for Liesborn,the former convent near Münster, the Presentation in theTemple, and the Virgin and Child accompanied by seven figures of mystic meaning from the Old Testament, maybe seen in an altar-piece painted by Quentin Matsys forthe church of S. Donatus at Bruges; the Crucifixion byCornelius Engelbrechtsen of Leyden, flanked by the Sacrifice of Isaac and the uplifting of the Brazen Serpent;the Tree of Jesse below. The subject most frequentlycopied is that of Christ on the Judgment Day, seated on arainbow, His feet resting on the globe, a sword and lily at either side of His head, and the graves below givingup their dead. In a triptych of Lucas van Leyden someof the subjects of the Passion are treated as in the blockbook Biblia Pauperum. Albert Dürer in his treatment ofthe Ascension, the Entry into Jerusalem, and Apotheosis of Christ, followed the same work. *The Duomo of Orvieto, circ. 1300, with its ornamentedgables, windows divided by a single pillar, reminds us ofthe framework of the Biblia Pauperum. The Coronation ofthe Virgin, the Creation of Eve, &c. , seem as if derivedfrom the same origin as the windows of Hirschau Abbeyin the Black Forest, painted in the year 1085, after thesubjects in the Biblia Pauperum.Another class of miniature painting besides that onvellum are such Byzantine miniatures on wood as may beseen in numbers in the Vatican museum; the subjectsgenerally resemble those in mosaic and mural painting.We see there a subject exactly corresponding to thefresco in the Pisan Campo Santo, illustrating the asceticlife in the desert, aged men seated in mountain caves,some reading, some plaiting straw for baskets. At oneside the death of St. Ephraim and his soul borne aloft byan angel—at the other St. Simeon Stylites. EmmanuelTyanfurnari was the author of this painting, and there is

• The Passion of Christ, with types of the successive scenes, is shown in the painted windows of Bourges Cathedral. Also the Resurrection of our Lord, with Elisha raising the widow's child, and the Lion-cub legend, which latter also occurs at Tours as type of the Resurrection .

VOL. II. P210 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.a tradition that the work was brought into Italy bySquarcione, master of Mantegna.In all such works we still find evidence of the doublecurrent flowing through art, the feeling for the antiqueside by side with the ascetic type; and in these manuals andtexts we have been dealing with it is interesting to find many types of events in the Christian life drawn fromClassic and Pagan mythologies. On this subject we hopeto enlarge in the following chapter.Fig. 229.-DANIEL AMONG LIONS; HABAKKUK AND THE ANGEL.MYTHOLOGICAL LEGENDS. 211MYTHOLOGICAL LEGENDS IN THE SPECULUMHUMANE SALVATIONIS.WE find that nine legends from Pagan mythology havebeen included in the Mirror of Human Salvation as typesfor events in the life of Christ and of the Virgin.1. The myth of Cyrus and the vision of his grandfather Astyages before his birth, became a type of theprediction of the Virgin's birth to Joachim. The kingdreams that he sees a vine rise from his daughter's womband grow into a great tree that overshadowed the earth,and learns from his interpreter that this foreshadowsthat the babe to be born of Mandane will reign in his stead.2. The legend of the offering of the golden table in thetemple of the sun-god is taken as a type of the Presentation ofthe Virgin in the temple. The story is as follows:Three fishers threw their net into the sea in the hope ofcatching fish, but when they drew in the net again theyfound, intead of fish, a golden table of wondrous beautyand splendour. Close by the sea-shore stood a templebuilt by the neighbouring people in honour of the sunwhom they worshipped as a god, and the fishermenbrought their table here and offered it to the sun-god,so that it has since been called of all people the Table of the kingdom of the sun. The author of the BibleHistoriée adds that this table of the sun-god (onwhich the image of the sun-god stood in the temple)prefigures the Virgin Mary, on whom the God of Paradisedescended: but the golden table was offered in the templeof a corruptible sun, Mary in an incorruptible; and whilefood for man's body was held by the one, so the bread oflife was laid upon the other.3. Another type of the Virgin and her presentation in P 2212 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.the temple is found in the person of Semiramis. In themyth of this Queen of the East we have many of the sameelements as occur in the story of Cyrus, which we havehad already as a type of the Nativity of Christ, andwhich these tales again have in common with the legendsof Romulus, Oidipous, Telephos, and others. Like them,she is exposed in her infancy, saved by doves, and broughtup by a shepherd. "Semiramis is simply," writes Mr.Cox, "the Dawn Goddess, the daughter of the Fish-godDerketo, the lover of Tammuz, the counterpart of Aphroditê with the boy Adonis. Semiramis is sometimes replaced by Esther in later copies of the Spec. Hum. Sal.Both were patriot queens-the one built numerous citiesand wonderful temples, such as the great tomb of Ninus,her husband, and she planned the hanging gardens of herpeople's city, on the highest point of which she is often represented as standing, by the oldest miniature painters. "†4. The Sibyl showing Augustus a vision of the Virginwith infant Christ is the third figure for the Nativityfollowing on the vision of Pharaoh's cup-bearer and theblossoming of Aaron's rod. The legend is already sofamiliar to the readers of Mrs. Jameson and Lady Eastlake's History of Our Lord in Art, that it is unnecessary torepeat it now.5. The subject of the child Moses breaking Pharaoh's crown, or, as it has been sometimes called , " Moses'Choice, " forms one of the three figures that accompanythe Sojourn of Christ in Egypt. The legend appears inBartolocci, Biblioth. Magna Rabbinica, pt. iv. p. 115, andis as follows:-66 It is related in Medrasc that Moses, whom, when hewas three years old, Bathiah, the daughter of Pharaoh, hadtaken from among the rushes, in the presence of Pharaohand the Magi, took the crown from Pharaoh's head and

• See Cox, Aryan Myth. , i . 223, note, ii. 84; Dictionary of Literature,

Science, and Art, s. v. (Brande and Cox).† Mr. Sayce observes in a note to the editor, " It is very curious to find Semiramis representing the Virgin . In the Pseudo-Lucian's treatise De Dea Syria, Semiramis is given as the name ofthe Syrian Venus worshippedin the great temple of Hierapolis (the town which succeeded to Car- chemish)."See Mirabilia Romæ. Scholastic History.Moses' Choice is the subject ofa fine painting by Giorgione in the Uffizi.THE CHOICE OF THE CHILD MOSES. 213placed it upon his own head, and all wondered, but Pharaoh feared. Balaam his Councillor gave this counselto Pharaoh-that Moses should be slain. And [it isrelated ] that God sent the angel Gabriel in the likenessof one of the Magi of Pharaoh, and he gave him the counselthat two vessels should be brought; in one vessel shouldbe placed Daisies, and in a second live burning coals, andboth should be shown to the boy; but if the boy shouldtake from the Daisies, it would be a sign that he haddone this thing with intent and out of malice, and so theboy should be guilty of death; but if he should stretchout his hand to the burning coals, it would be a sign thatthis thing had been done not with design and withintent, and so the boy should be free. And so it was done. However the angel saw them, but they did notsee the angel; and he raised the hand of Moses, and hetook the burning coal, and he put it to his mouth, and theedge of his lips was burnt, and Moses became stammeringand slow of speech, and he went out free."We find a slightly different version of this tale in theBible Historiée. "The daughter of Pharaoh brought the child Moses to a feast before her father, who, when hesaw the beauty of the child, placed his crown upon his head, in which crown was fixed an image of the idol Haman. And when Moses had the crown upon his head,he took it and threw it so rudely on the ground, that both the crown and the idol were broken. Then the highpriest who was present said that it was he by whom thekingdom of Egypt should be destroyed, and that he mustdie. But another answered that he had done it throughchildishness, and he brought red charcoal and placed them before the child, and Moses took one up burningand put it in his mouth, and it burned him so that he cried. Therefore he escaped from death. Herein is afigure of Christ; for as Moses was born for the deliver- ance of Israel, so Christ was born to deliver us fromSatan; as Moses broke one idol, so Christ broke all idols;and as Moses escaped while all the other infants of Israel were destroyed by Pharaoh, so the infant Christ was saved from Herod."6. Two of the figures which accompany the subject ofthe Flight into Egypt are mythological, but the first is214 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.chosen from Christian mythology, being the Fall of theEgyptian Idols before the child Christ; the legend isgiven in the apocryphal gospels of the Infancy of Christ."And they came into the borders of Hermopolis andentered into a certain city of Egypt, which is calledSotinen; and because there was no one known in it fromwhom they could have requested hospitality, they wentinto a temple which was called the Capitol of Egypt, inwhich temple three hundred and fifty-five idols wereplaced, to which the honour of Deity was rendered insacrilegious rites. Now it came to pass that when themost blessed Mary, with her little Infant had entered thetemple, all the idols were prostrate on the earth, so thatthey all lay upon their faces wholly shattered andbroken, and so they showed evidently that they werenothing. Then was fulfilled what was spoken by theprophet Isaiah: Behold the Lord shall come upon a lightcloud, and shall enter Egypt, and all the handiworks ofthe Egyptians shall be movedat his presence (Isa. xix. 1).”*7. The voluntary sacrifice of Codrus, king of Athens,is one of the three types of the Crucifixion of Christ.It is a tradition connected with the expedition of thePeloponnesians against Athens after the conquest ofPeloponnesus by the Dorians. When the good king sawhis city surrounded by the enemy, he took counsel of thegod Apollo as to how his city might be saved, and theanswer given by the oracle was that he, the king, mustdie for the city. This he resolved to do, and he rodeforth alone so that the enemy might see him and slayhim. But the Dorians had heard of the oracle, and knewthat if they slew the king, the city would be lost to them. Therefore they allowed Codrus to pass on andreturn through the gates unhurt. Then Codrus divestedhimself of his kingly garments, and put on poor and vileclothing. He then issued forth from the city again, andhis enemies, not recognising the king, thus disguised as abeggar, attacked and slew him before the city walls.†

• See Gospel of the Infancy, cap. 10; Codex Apocr. N. Test. tom. i. p. 75;

also Apocryphal Gospels, B. H. Cooper, p. 63, 15th ed.† See Pausanias, vii. 25, English translation, ed. 1794, vol. ii . 366,chap. lii. , vol. iv. 5, chap. lvii . 2; see Lycophr. 1388, and Tzetzes' note;Herod. v. 76; Leoc. 20, sects. 194, 196; Vell. Pat. i . 2; Justin, lib. ii.5, &c.; Strab. xiv. p. 633.LEGEND OF THE OSTRICH. 2158. One ofthe types for Christ in Hades is the myth oftheostrich who delivers her young one imprisoned in a vase. *This is represented in early art by an ostrich which standsFig. 230.with a worm in its mouth by the side of a high glassvessel, in which the young bird is imprisoned. The legendis thus given by Petrus Comestor:--

• See Bible Historiée; Petr. Comestor, Hist. Schol. lib. Regum iii . cap. 8;

Baring- Gould, Curious Myths, second series; Cox, Aryan Mythology, vol.i. p. 216.216 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY."The Jews said that for the purpose of cutting stonesmore quickly, Solomon had the blood of a worm called tamir, by which marble was easily split by sprinkling,which he discovered after this manner: Solomon had anostrich with a chick, which the King had shut up in a glass vessel. When the ostrich saw it, but could not get at it,she brought from the desert a worm, with whose blood shesmeared the vessel , and it broke. "66Mr. Cox classes this legend with similar stories of swansand eagles which carry stones capable of splitting the hardest substance-all of which he holds to symbolise thecloud charged with lightning till the moment to use the mighty weapon comes. Finally," he says, "the stonebecomes a worm, and thus we have the framework of alarge family of stories, which, if they have their origin among Aryan tribes, have been extended far beyond the limits of that race. In all the Hebrew versions of thislegend the cloud is a bird, the lightning either a stone or a worm. Thus Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, discovers thewonder-working pebble Schamir, by watching a moor-hen,which, finding a piece of glass laid over her nest, flies away, and, fetching a worm, splits the cover; or Solomonobtains it in the form of a stone from the raven, of whichhe has been informed by the demon Sackar.In similar stories told by Ælian and Pliny of the woodpecker or the hoopoe, the instrument by which the birdgets at her young is a grass; and thus we reach thefamily of plants, whose power of splitting rocks has wonfor them the name of Saxifrage * or Sassafras. This grassor plant will either reveal treasures, as they are revealedby the blinding glare of the electric fluid , or it will restorelife, as lightning in splitting a rock sets free the waters ona parched-up soil.Following Baring- Gould, we find this worm in hischapter on Schamir is a talisman, that in the legends ofsome countries is represented as about the size of a barley- corn; and as entrusted to the keeping of a moor-hen ora sea-god. The bird may also be a raven, an eagle, ahoopoe (the woodpecker of the Greeks) , a swallow, or an

• Saxifrage: Isaiah vii . 2, 3; ix . 17; x. 17; xxxii. 13. The spell at sound of which the doors of Aladdin's cave fly open. Sesamum Orientale,

an Eastern plant. "Open Sesame."FOOTPRINTS OF CHRIST. 217ostrich. But among some nations this talismanic poweris said to lie not in the worm but in a stone. In Normandy we find a legend of this stone as in the keepingof a swallow. In Iceland it is a pebble kept by a raven.In all cases it is a talisman bringing deliverance fromdeath and imprisonment. Occasionally we meet it as ared flower, Lactua agrestis, purple stained, and then it isthe blue " Forget-me not. "9. The legend of the vengeance of Queen Tomyris on thedead body of Cyrus is one of the three types for the subjectof the Virgin Mary when she quells Satan by holdingbefore him the emblems of the Passion. Judith and Jaelare the other two types. The author of the Speculum hasprobably taken the story from Justin, who quotes from Herodotus. This is one of the subjects wrought onDante's pavement in Purgatory. *"Where is shown the scath and cruel mangling madeBy Tomyris on Cyrus, when she cried,' Blood thou didst thirst for: take thy fill of blood . " "Herodotus (Book i . cap. 214), Justin (Book i . cap. 8) ,and Valerius Maximus (Book ix. cap. 10), said thatCyrus met his death in a battle against the Massagetæ.According to Herodotus, Tomyris their queen, havingbeheaded him, plunged the head in a skin filled withblood, saying: " Though living and victorious, thou hastlost me in destroying my son, who has fallen into thy but I will satiate thee with blood as I havethreatened thee. "†snares;10. The last purely legendary incident in the subsidiarypictures of the Speculum Humane Salvationis is that of thefootprints of Christ on the Mount of Olives. When Christascended it was held that the prints of His sacred feet remained upon the rock on which He was last seen to stand." A similar form of relic worship," writes Mr. King,"manifests itself in the very metropolis of Christianity;for the prints of Christ's feet on a slab of basalt, a pavingstone of the Via Appia, have been worshipped from timeimmemorial in the church of Domine quo vadis, built over

• See Dante, translated by H. T. Cary. Purg. c. xii . l. 51 .

† See Herod., bk. i. Clio. Cox, Myth. Aryan Nations, vol. i. pp. 260,309; vol. ii . pp. 74, 83.218 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.the consecrated spot."'"* Moor notices the existence of theimpressions of a pair of feet cut upon a flat stone about manyHindoo temples, and the tradition that they commemorated Satís, marking the place whence the widow steppedfrom earth upon the funeral pile, or into the gate of Heaven.This custom bears upon the Buddhist veneration for theprint of Adam's foot upon the summit of the peak calledafter him in Ceylon, held by the Mahommedans to be thefootprints of Adam. " In the Christian period of Egypt,"writes Mr. Sayce, † " pilgrims in Upper Egypt used to cutrepresentations of their feet on stones of the old temples which had been converted into Christian shrines. "We have already shown that the miniature paintingsillustrating these Italian Mirrors of Salvation and of theHoly Virgin, are characterised by the same simplicity and human interest which distinguish the mural painting of the school of Giotto. Touches of nature appear in theseworks, indicating the awakening of human and kindly sympathies, through the influence of which Western Art.freed itself at last from the trammels of Byzantinism.The slavish adherence of the later Greek Church painters to the methods laid down in their Manual, resulted in astony stiffening of forms which were only copies fromcopies, and faces whose original wistful sadness was re- placed in the copyist's hands for a vacant stare. Thesystem of the thirteenth century in Italy led to very different results, for, while it still prescribed the choiceand grouping of subjects, so as to subserve to a greatreligious dramatic scheme, yet it left the artist free to turn to nature for his models. And, only intent on the moral significance of the sacred story he was to relate, hesought for his models and backgrounds amid the daily life and scenery of his own home, just as he found the innerrealities he was to symbolize by introspection of his ownmeans, an introspection which it is the peculiarity of theartistic nature to indulge in, even in moments of all but the most disturbing passion, and to draw thence materialsfor art. So it was the habit with our old English poets

• See King, Gnostics and their Remains, p. 159.

In a letter to the Editor.These remarks, as I learn from my friend Dr. Waldstein, may also apply to the days of great art in Greece. There the heroes of Homer arePAUL VERONESE. 219also, who were not at pains to associate the scenes andacts of Christ's life solely with the hills and trees ofPalestine, but sought to bring home His passion, strife,and victory to the very walls of their old towns, or bytheir shores and river-banks, amid the primroses and haw- thorns of their own island.Thus in his opening scene of Christ's Temptation, GilesFletcher shows us the Prince of Peace when found by the demon in the wilderness:"Upon a grassie hillock he was laidWith woodie primroses befreckelled . "In the same poem we find it is the hawthorn that ispulled in honour, and afterwards plaited in dishonour, ofthe Sacred Head:"It was but now they gathered blooming May,And of his arms disrobed the branching tree,To strow with boughs and blossoms all thy way;And now the branchlesse trunck a crosse for thee,And May, dismaid, thy coronet must be. "With violets and primroses and the song of Englishbirds he celebrates the resurrection, when:"Every bush lay deeply purpured With violets; the wood's late wintry headWide flaming primroses set all on fire,And the bald trees put on their green attire,Among whose infant leaves the joyous birds conspire. "The true instinct followed by painters and poets in theMiddle Ages in such matters has found a warm defenderin a poet of our own day, who in the following linescorrects some pedant critic for carping at the method ofPaul Veronese in his treatment of sacred subjects."They err who say this long-withdrawing line Of palace-fronts Palladian, this brocadeFrom looms of Genoa, this gold inlaid Resplendent plate of Milan, that combineTo spread soft lustre through the grand design ,Show but in fond factitious masqueradeThe actual feast by leper Simon madeconceived as being armed and acting like people of the time of Pheidias,and we find the groups of Lapiths against Centaurs and Amazons as well as gods against giants represented like Athenians of his own age.220 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.To that great Guest, of old, in Palestine.Christ walks amongst us still; at liberal table Scorns not to sit no sorrowing MagdaleneBut of these dear feet kindly gets her kiss Now, even as then; and thou, be honorable,Who, by the might of thy majestic scene,Bringest down that age, and minglest it with this. ” *The great book of Nature once opened, a wider andstill more magnificent Iconographical system of symbolswas developed than those we have dealt with as yet,which only owe their origin to the Hebrew Scripturesand a few mythological legends. Christian philosophyand her handmaidens, Poetry and Art, with their transforming power, naturally grew out of the study ofthe Bibleas the word of God. The expressions of his thought, foundby the philosopher in words, become images in the artist'smind. Such images, if bearing a faithful analogy or affinityto the idea represented, become symbols holding the samerelation to the idea as the bird of dawning does to sunrise.And such symbols may become parts of the harmonies of nature with which poetry has to do. "So," writesOzanam, " it was in the study of Scripture; the eventsrecorded have both a figurative and a real signification;the figures moving on this stage have a prophetic andsymbolic, as well as historic part to fill. They are Ideasincarnate; Contemplation, Action, Hope, Charity, Faith,Penitence, as well as brute force in man, are embodied insuch forms as those of Rachel, Leah, or Mary and Martha,of Peter, James, John, of David, the Magdalene, andGoliath.As Science and History grew with Philosophy, so thenecessity of arrangement of these branches of human ideasled to the great encyclopædias of the Middle Ages whichembraced the whole scheme of Nature. The work, compendium, or abstract in which this scheme was epitomized,was still termed a mirror-in allusion, doubtless , to thatimage of St. Paul, when he says, " We now see in a mirrordarkly. " Hugo de St. Victor writes on this (A.D. 1150 ):"For now we see in a mirror darkly † [in an enigma ],but then face to face. To see in a glass is to see an

• Poems, by Sir Samuel Ferguson, 1880 , p. 157 .

We must remember, if we would understand this passage, that the mirrors of the ancients were of bronze or polished metal.THE MIRROR OF THE UNIVERSE. 221image; to see face to face is to see the thing. That whichwe see in an image is a sacrament, that which is seen inthe thing is the thing (the reality) of the sacrament.But what is the enigma in which the image is seendarkly until the thing itself may be seen? The enigmais the Sacred Scripture. And the mirror is your heart, if so be it be pure, and cleansed, and clarified . If thehighest good for a man is the contemplation of his Creator,that faith by which he begins, in some way, to see Himwho is absent, is rightly spoken of as the initial good, thebeginning of his restoration . Faith is the initial good.This work of restoration will be continued till we all,with unveiled face reflecting as a mirror the glory of theLord, are transformed into the same image from glory toglory." We read of the Mirror of Human Salvation , theUniversal Mirror, the Historical Mirror, the Moral Mirror,the Doctrinal Mirror, and the Mirror of Nature. The firstshows how God's Being is reflected in the whole order ofthe Universe, in the wonders of Nature, in the providencesof life, in the written Word, the dispensations of Hisgrace, in the sacramental system of the Church. Hugodistinguishes three kinds of works, the work of God, thework of Nature, the work of the artificer imitating Nature," whose business," he adds, " is to unite things which areseparate and to distinguish things that are joined; " andthis is only done through contemplation. " The statue,"he says, 66 comes from the contemplation of a man," andthe contemplation of Nature is the contemplation of thatwhich is the archetype of all things in the eternal mind.In France Vincent de Beauvais, when in his Speculum Universale he showed as in a mirror the order of God'sUniverse, was followed by the architect and sculptors ofChartres Cathedral, who, personifying each heading inhis philosophy, theological, doctrinal, historical, or natural,covered its walls with icons that symbolized this universalscheme. Eighteen hundred and forty figures in stone,eight feet eight inches high, compose the icons of ChartresCathedral on the outside, while within, the statues andbas-reliefs comprise not less than two thousand figures.The order of their arrangement is in obedience to thescheme of Vincent de Beauvais, an expression instone of the Christian philosophy as classified by this222 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.great writer of the Middle Ages, the friend of St. Louis and tutor of his children. The Speculum Majus wasdivided under three heads: Speculum Naturale, SpeculumDoctrinale, and Speculum Historiale; Mirror of Nature,Science, and History. The Natural Mirror deals with God as Creator of the Universe and of Man, * God as reflectedin His works; and the six days of creation are treated in succession, beginning with that of the pure Spirits orAngels; of the Heavens and Stars, Meteorology, Geognosy,Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, as sciences commencing oneach successive day, and closing with the creation of Man,soul and body. This portion of the work is illustrated in thirty-six bas-reliefs and seventy-five statues. The seriesopens with the form of the Creator as He comes forthfrom His eternal rest to create the Heavens and the Earth,and closes with the awful climax of The Fall of Man.In the second division of the philosopher's scheme thelabours and arts of man are treated, and Agriculturehere holds a prominent place, as also the Industries of theFarm, of the Manufacturer, of Commerce and Art.Chapters are devoted to the nature of seeds, plants,medicinal herbs, cultivation of trees, and all things areshown to have their fitting use, either through the goodwe extract from them, or the functions they fulfil innature. Twelve subjects in bas-relief correspond to thechapters on the agricultural labours of man, while theliberal arts are symbolized elsewhere. The labours of thecountry form a calendar: thus January is shown by an interior where a man is seen seated at table laden withvessels and wine; February, a figure warming himselfbefore the fire, a large roll on the mantelpiece; March,digging the vineyard; April, vine-dresser trimminghis vine; May, a youth giving an opening flower to hisbetrothed, whose hand he holds in his; June, a horsemangallops to the chase; July, mowers in the meadow;August, reapers in the cornfield; September, thrashingthe corn; October, filling measures with new wine;

• "Man," says Vincent, "that epitome of the wonders of creation, that little world, that universal creature made in the image and likeness of God, should be himself, in thought and wisdom, the living image of the

universe the universal mirror in which God, the world, and humanity are reflected."MIRROR OF DOCTRINE. 223November, storing fa*ggots for winter use; December,killing the fattened pig.The Speculum Doctrinale of the philosopher offers amirror of the arts and sciences of human learning:Grammar, Morals, Jurisprudence, Physics, Literature,Politics, Mathematics, Medicine. Two hundred and fiftyone figures symbolise the various subdivisions of thesesections. Thus Grammar is symbolised by an aged womanwearing a Roman mantle, who holds a round ivory boxdivided into compartments like a medicine chest, whenceshe draws forth her implements, such as knife, pens, ruler,mill hammer, and waxen tablets; she holds a file also,marked by eight golden divisions for the eight portions of her discourse.Dialectic is symbolized by a thin spare female figureholding a serpent as an attribute, or two serpents in onehand; sometimes her robe is confined at the waist by aserpent as by a belt or girdle. She presides over astruggle between a dragon and a serpent A monkey, .symbol ofmalice, is at her side.Rhetoric: an upright figure holding a small cross onhigh with the action of a preacher.Arithmetic figure of a man counting on his fingers.Music: figure playing on a harp.After the chapters on moral philosophy the virtues and vices of man are discussed in this Mirror of HumanDoctrine, and these sections are symbolized by one hundred and forty-eight effigies. A few examples willsuffice to show how this portion of the book was carriedout. Faith, a kneeling figure at an altar, is opposed toIdolatry; Hope, a little girlish figure as if springing towards Heaven, which she gazes on with love, is opposedto Despair, a famished woman with dishevelled hair andbosom bared for the knife with which she is ready to slayherself. Charity, a woman giving alms, is opposed toAvarice, who stores her money in a safe. Chastity, awoman in long flowing robes and mantle, holding aprayer-book in the left hand, is opposed to Impurity, afemale figure walking lightly through a wood, her clothesraised so as to lay bare her person. Humility, a wisevirgin, seated, calm and veiled, holding an open book onher knee, and a phial of sweet perfume in her hand, is224 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.opposed to Pride, a rider splendidly equipped and mounted,who encounters a hurricane of wind, rain, and flame,vomited forth from the throats of three dragons by whichhe is driven into Hell among the damned. The Christianreligion, symbolized by a vigorous large- breasted woman,is opposed to the Jewish, a spare woman blindfold ,having closed her eyes to truth. And Wisdom, a grandand temperate female form, is opposed to Madness, awoman in rags, with naked breast, legs and feet.The public virtues are symbolized by fourteen queenlyfigures with crowns and bucklers, which are ranged alongthe upper bay of the face of the North Porch. The first,leaning on a shield and holding what seems to have beeneither a cross or a banner, has not been identified; thesecond, crowned and nimbed, with standard and shield, isLiberty; the third, Honour, holds a shield with twocrowns; the fourth, Prayer, holds a cross and shield onwhich an angel is seen among clouds; the fifth, Adoration,holds a shield with an angel swinging a censer; the sixth,Swiftness, has three arrows on her shield; the seventh,Fortitude, has a lion rampant on her shield; the eighth,Concord, shield with turtle-doves; the ninth, Friendship,shield with a flock of birds on wing; the tenth, Power,shield with a bird holding a sceptre; the eleventh [ subjectunknown] , three sceptres on a shield and cross in her hand;the twelfth, Health, holds standard, and the fish of Tobias *is represented on her shield; the thirteenth, Security,holds a standard in her right hand, and a fortalice isrepresented on her shield; the fourteenth is a figure notidentified, who bears a dragon on her shield.All these virtues are represented as women, sainted andqueenly forms wearing crown and nimbus, but truewomen, fitted for counsel, support, and comfort. All arestanding upright, ready for action at the first sign;indeed, Swiftness seems by the motion of her head tohave already received her mission. They are young andin full vigour, for virtue is the youth of the soul, asyouth is the strength of the body. All carry shield and spear with cross and standard. Robed in long mantles,their drapery falls around them in grand folds; large-

• The fish drawn from the Euphrates by the young Tobias, whose gall

restored sight to the blind old man.MIRROR OF HISTORY. 225breasted women in noble attitudes, the expression of eachface proud or sweet according to the character sym- bolized .The Historical Mirror of the philosopher, which isillustrated at Chartres by fourteen hundred and eightyeight figures, embraces ancient history, sacred and profane,and modern history, civil and ecclesiastical. In the firstthirty-one books the history of Man is given in that ofthe world, divided into six ages; the first from theCreation to the Deluge; the second from the Deluge toAbraham; the third from Abraham to David; the fourthfrom David to the capture of Jerusalem; the fifth fromthe fall of Jerusalem to the coming of Christ; the sixthfrom Christ to the thirteenth century. The north andsouth porches of Chartres are encrusted with the imageswhich translate this history into plastic art.From the date at which Vincent de Beauvais wrote, i.e.from about the year 1244, the Historic Mirror becomesprophetic, and Art brings her thousand symbols toprophesy the Future, as before she has striven to revivifythe Past. The philosopher foresees the accomplishment ofTime, the end of the Universe, the Last Judgment ofman, and foretells that, through the agency of fire andwater, the world will end its days. The artist finds inthe writings of the Prophets and the Apocalypse all thesymbols he requires for figuring this portion of thephilosopher's work, and these groups, the last of theseries, fill the three recesses of the north porch and allthe great southern porch with its three bays.Thus Didron has found the clue to the labyrinthinescheme of Christian Iconography in the Middle Ages,though, as he states in the introduction to this work, someone chapter of this Mirror of the Universe may be morefully treated than another in certain placesChrist and scenes from the Apocalypse arein Rheims Cathedral than in Chartres.Christ follows that of His mother. The temptation ishere given as the leading and principal event in a series which closes with the Crucifixion. In another place, toThe Life ofmore extended The Life of

• Annales Arch. vol. vi. pp. 35, 39; vol . ix. pp. 41 , 99, 175, 232. Rheims,

Ann. Arch. xiii . pp. 289, 299.VOL. II . Q226 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.the right, the scenes after death and the history of the Invention of the Cross are given. *Before passing on to the iconographical systems illustrating the Christian scheme followed by the artistsof the culminating period in Christian Art, it will bewell to look back on the ground we have trodden, andwhere we have striven to indicate the origins of muchin the highest period of Art, the history of whose development we have hitherto neglected. We have foundin the first instance that the scheme of the Byzantinepainter was a chronological abstract of the HebrewScriptures and New Testament; secondly, that theCatacomb Christian painters' scheme was symbolic andsacramental; thirdly, that the texts of the Biblia Pauperum, and Mirror of Human Salvation, were a completeseries of scenes from the life of Christ, selected for theirsymbolic signification, which was explained bytypes from antiquity; fourthly, that the artists of the French cathedrals enlarged their horizon, and their scheme was, topresent a Mirror of the Universe, of Nature, Science, andHuman History. The final scheme was that attempted inthe Vatican, and most fully worked out on the walls andin the ceiling of the Sixtine Chapel by Michael Angeloand his predecessors. On the north and south walls ofthis building the wonders of the Old and New Lawwere tobe displayed in eighteen scenes. Moses being the embodiment of the Old, Jesus Christ of the New. On the ceiling ,the Mirror of Human Salvation was displayed, the schemewhich we may say formed the plot of the Divina Com- media of Michael Angelo. †

• Daunou (Hist. Litt. de la France, Académie Royale des Inscriptions et

Belles- Lettres, vol. xviii. pp. 471 , 503, where an abstract of the HistoricMirror is given) states that the portion of this work of Vincent de Beau- vais called the Historic Mirror has been translated from Latin to Frenchby Jean de Vignay, head of the hospital of St. Jacques du Haut-Pas, inthe reign of Philip de Valois. This translation was printed in 1495 atParis, and a fine example is preserved in the Bibl. de Ste. Geneviève, Paris.An index to the Speculum was made in the fourteenth century by a priestnamed Jean de Hautfumy; it is preserved in the Bibl. Nat. Paris, N. 490-6,Catal. MSS. t. iv. p. 16.† The artists employed on the scheme of the Old and New Law were Perugino, Luca Signorelli, Sandro Botticelli, Cosimo Roselli, D. Ghirlandaio,and Cecchino Salviati.SISTINE CHAPEL. 227THE OLD LAW.Moses found in the bulrushes. *Circumcision Moses and Zipporah.-Moses overcomes the Egyptians.Defence of daughters of Jethro.Call of the Israelites,t after pas- sage of Red Sea.Moses on the Mount.‡The Priesthood (Korah, Dathan,Abiram).Moses' last commands to Joshua.Moses' body upborne by Michael.THE NEW LAW.Christ in the Manger.Baptism of Christ.Temptation, Conquest of SatanCall of the Apostles.Christ's Sermon on the Mount.Sacrament of Holy Orders. Christ gives keys to Peter.Christ's Last Supper.Resurrection of Christ.With Michael Angelo the Mirror of Human Salvation istreated as a drama in five acts, the Prologue to which isTHE FALL OF LUCIFER.ACT I.-CREATION.Scene I.-Creator rising from Chaos.II.-Division of Light and Darkness.III.-Division of Land and Water.IV. -Creation of Man.V.-Creation of Woman.FALL OF MAN AND ITS RESULTS.VI.-Temptation; Fall, Expulsion from Paradise.VII.-The Deluge.VIII. -Sacrifice and Covenant of the Rainbow.IX.-Inebriety of Noah and Sin of Ham.ACT II.- REDEMPTION.Scene I.-The Raising of the Serpent in the Wilderness.II.-Punishment of Haman.III. David slaying Goliath.IV. Judith and Holofernes' Head.ACT III.-COMING OF CHRIST.PROPHETS OF HEBREWS.Jeremiah.Ezek.el.PROPHETESSES OF GENTILES.Persian Sibyl.Erythrean Sibyl.Joel.Zacharias.Isaiah.Daniel.Delphic Sibyl.Cumæan Sibyl.Libyan Sibyl.

• This subject is in the Byzantine Manual series.

In the Byzantine Manual series. In the Byzantine Manual.Q 2228 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.ACT IV.-GOD IN MAN.The Genealogy of Christ.ACT V.-RESURRECTION.Jonah raised from the Monster.THE LAST JUDGMENT.Assumption of the Virgin. Coronation of the Virgin.It is now manifest that each one of the pictures comprised in this cycle has its long train of forerunners inArt. The great painters, like the great architects of old ,rose upon the shoulders of their predecessors, entered into their labours and carried them on, worked on theirlines, and were the expounders of the same vast scheme,old as Eternity itself, in which each individual soul was but an instrument. The crowd of figures outside thesesubjects, of recumbent athletes and children, in this great composition, are all mere accessories subordinate to theprincipal themes--- statues in the temple where MichaelAngelo enshrined his Mirror of Salvation-yet forms of menlistening and deeply stirred by the message borne on thewind that fills the temple and swells the folds of theirdrapery. They are moved by the sound, though not upborne in that passion of rapture or of sorrow which fills the Prophets and the Sibyls at its voice of thunder. Arethey not types of Humanity first awakening from its long slumber in the dawn of a new revelation?The expectancy of Christ to come is shown in the grandfigures of the Prophets and Sibyls who sit enthroned alldown each side of these paintings. They are elevenliving forms, all animated by the expression of a higherinspiration , raised by a superhuman power above time and the world. The human and divine united in ageneration of Titans, who, dwelling in deep caverns ofthe past, have been wakened by an angel's voice. All arerepresented seated, employed with books or rolled manuscripts; mighty souls, pensive, meditative, inquiring, orlooking upwards with inspired countenances.forms and movements, indicated by the grand lines andmasses of the drapery, are majestic and dignified. Wesee in them beings who, while they feel the sorrow of life,are upborne by the revelation vouchsafed to them, and seeTheirFRESCOES OF RAPHAEL. 229consolation in the future. In all these figures, in theabsence of any attribute by which to identify them, the name of each is written on a slab. In the art of formerdays their individuality was indicated by texts writtenon scrolls held in the hands of the figures. MichaelAngelo discards such aid, and gives in the expression ofeach face and figure an abstract of the thought or passionuttered by the text.The ancestors of Christ are represented in the lunettesand in the triangular spaces above the windows.InByzantine art they are illustrated in the genealogical treeof Jesse and in older art generally they are given as aseries of kings or heroes, in costumes appertaining to theirhigh estate, and in the performance of royal acts or deeds.But how infinitely greater is Michael Angelo's treatmentof this part of his subject! He simply seeks in Scripturefor what indication he may find there as to the truecondition of those very ancestors of our Lord; and, fromthe lowly life of Joseph and of Mary amid their humblelabours, he brings us back to the shepherd kings of old.Taking for his models such family groups as he mightmeet with in the peasant life he saw in his daily walks,he consecrates their poverty and toil by showing thatsuch was the lowly birth and ancestry of Christ. Hegives us a long series of pastoral scenes; the poetry ofcalm seclusion, of a dignified yet humble domestic life,pervades them all; and the playful children, the thoughtful, loving fathers, and the tender mothers we meet within these groups, show us how rich in human sympathywas the great heart of Michael Angelo. The series commences with Joseph, the reputed father of our Lord, andJacob, the father of the Virgin Mary, and works backward, showing the royal pedigree of Christ among thekings of Judah, as given in the Gospel of St. Matthew,until we reach Aram and Aminadab.At the same time in which Michael Angelo unveiledthe first half of the vault in the Sistine Chapel, Raphaelfinished his great_frescoes in the Camera della Segnaturaof the Vatican; Jurisprudence, Philosophy, Poetry andTheology, scenes in the Tribune, the atrium of theTemple, on Mount Parnassus, and in the Courts of Heaven.This last has been named the Dispute of the Sacrament.230 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.There are two subjects in early Byzantine art fromwhich this composition of Raphael's seems to have beenevolved. One is named The Mystagogia, the other, theSpirits' Reunion . It is directed in the Manual of Dionysius, that one or other of these subjects is to be allotted tothe cupola of the church. In both paintings the sceneis laid in Heaven. The finest examples of the Mystagogiaare to be found in the Catholicon of Vatopedi, in thecupola of Chilandari, in the mosaic of St. John Lateran,and on the front of the Imperial dalmatic preserved inthe Sacristy of St. Peter's in Rome. In the Byzantinechurches the subject is accompanied by the followinginscription: "Oh! bright Heaven! Church open to allthe faithful who have entered into thee, we hereinscribe these words: Oh Lord, confirm Thy house! "The subject is treated as follows: In the centre, above,God the Father is seen enthroned, and giving the sign ofbenediction with His hand, saying, " I engendered theein my bosom before Lucifer." The Dove, symbol of theHoly Ghost, is seen below, and then the Lord's table.Christ stands at the table as the High Priest, attended byangels attired as deacons carrying for Him the utensilsfor the Mass, and the instruments of His passion. Hetakes, as at Vatopedi, the disc from an angel's head,which will serve Him as a paten, or, as on the dalmatic,He stands amid the stars and gives the bread and wine to the reverent crowd around Him.The second subject is named the Spirit's Reunion, or the Communion in Heaven. Here Christ is shown seatedamong the stars, beneath the sun and moon; the VirginMother to the right, and John the Baptist to the left.Around stand the nine choirs of Angels, Thrones, Cherubim and Seraphim, the four evangelical symbols, andthe twelve signs of the Zodiac, beneath which the 148th Psalm is inscribed. Below appear the companyof Saints, Patriarchs, Prophets, Apostles, Prelates, Anchorites, Kings, holy women; and in the distance, mountains, trees and birds, with animals both wild andtame.This subject is found in the cupola of the portico atIvirôn on Mount Athos; it is sculptured on a side porchof Chartres Cathedral, and west porch of Notre Dame,FRESCOES OF RAPHAEL. 231Paris; painted and sculptured on the rose window ofRheims, as also in a triptych illustrated by D'Agincourt,where it is accompanied by the following inscription:"Thou art a perfect Saviour, Thou art all we long for,all our infinite desire; all peerless beauty and goodnessthen let it be Thy will that we be translated unto Thee,cleansed by Thy loftiness and worthy Thy divine per- fection."It would appear that this is the subject of Raphael'searly fresco at Perugia, and thus a link is given between Raphael's later work, hitherto known as the Disputà delS. Sacramento, but which we should simply term the Communion in Heaven. Instead of representing a congresson earth before whose astonished eyes the clouds have burstasunder and the glory of the revealed God is suddenlyperceived, we hold that the whole is a scene in heaven, and the redeemed are seated in the courts of heaven to whomChrist has manifested Himself in His eternal manhood.This is borne out by the scroll held over the picture bythe figure of Theology containing these words " Rerumdivinarum notitia "-the knowledge of things divine-asby the description given bythe first engraver of thework, Giorgio Chisi, in the year 1552. " The principalmen of Holy Church with all the inhabitants of Heavenpraise and adore the Holy Trinity and the Majesty ofof God. Who should not be incited to piety by theirexample? and Vasari, soon afterwards, describes it as" HEAVEN with Christ and the Holy Virgin, John theBaptist, the Apostles, Evangelists and Martyrs in theclouds, with God the Father sending down His HolySpirit upon all, and with an endless number of theSaints." The painter's meaning is also helped out by thesubsidiary paintings in the series to which it belongs.In the accessory to the scene on the mountain sacred tothe Muses symbolising Poetry, the figures of the poets arecontrasted with that of Marsyas punished. In the picturewhich accompanies that of which we treat, redeemedhumanity is contrasted with the fallen Adam.Fathers Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, and Gregory, withSt. Dominic, Francis, and Nicholas, Dante, Savonarola,Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, Duns Scotus, and othershaving entered into the courts of the heavenly city,99The232 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.contemplate the Mystery of the Eucharist, before whichthey have bowed, and by which they have lived.We are keenly aware of the fact that in this chapter onthe Iconographical schemes of the Middle Ages, and inthese bald classifications we have been obliged to resortto, we lay ourselves open to the charge of attempting toreduce Art and Poetry to a bare skeleton where all ismapped out with scientific precision; but Art in its widersense can bear the test of analysis as surely as any greatepic such as those of Milton or Dante. Now that wehave attempted to reveal the framework of the ChristianEpos in the Middle Ages, we hope to add in our followingchapters some remarks on the vivifying influence of theDrama, and of Poetry in the opening life of Religious Art.The result of these Mirrors and Bibles of the Poor was tooffer the painter in a certain sequence a vast gallery ofsymbols associated with the primitive emotions of humanity, while the actor, using the same texts, makes theseemotions intelligible through look, gesture, and action.Thus, in the Mystery Plays and Sacred Drama of theMiddle Age, the early painters may have first conceivedtheir spellbound Byzantine forms awakening to life andmotion, as they beheld their Nativities or Passion scenesenacted by groups in their native valleys lit by thesolemn light of sunset.The Portico of Ivirôn resembles in every way that of St.Germain l'Auxerrois. The porch is open and the wholevault is covered by the figures belonging to this subject. Inthe centre Jesus Christ is seated, His right hand raised inbenediction, and holding a globe with the left, which alsorests upon His knee. Beneath His feet are fiery-wingedwheels, full of eyes, the thrones of the hierachy of angels.His golden nimbus is circular, cruciform, and inscribedwith the Alpha and Omega, IC and XC. Eight choirs ofangels surround Him, singing " Holy, holy, holy, Lord Godof Sabaoth! " many of whom carry either a globe or roundshield. The evangelical symbols are placed at the fourcorners of this group.INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA. 233INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA ON ICONOGRAPHY.ABOUT the year 1204, St. Francis, as we learn fromBonaventura, wishing to arouse the public devotion, resolved to celebrate the Nativity of Christ with all possiblesolemnity in the town of Grecio. Having obtained thenecessary licence from the reigning Pontiff, he had acrèche prepared and furnished with straw, and an ox andan ass led in. The fraternity are assembled, the peoplecrowd in; the forest resounds with canticles, and thesolemn night grows melodious with music and resplendentwith light. The Man of God stands before the crèche,devout, in tearful joy. Mass is celebrated, and Francis, asdeacon, chants the holy Gospel. He then preaches to theassembled multitude, announcing the birth of this Kingamong the poor, whom, in the tenderness of his heart, heloved to call the little child of Bethlehem. Now a worthyknight, Sire Jean de Grecio, who, later on, abandoned theprofession of arms for love of Christ, attests that he saw alittle child of extreme beauty sleeping in the crèche, andthat the blessed Father Francis pressed it in his arms as ifto awaken it. *That the dramatic representations of the Biblical eposin the Middle Ages, thus so simply inaugurated, had apowerful effect in the quickening and development of thepainter's and the sculptor's art, is a point that has notbeen sufficiently appreciated by historians.It is when we find religion neither theoretical, dogmatic,or theological, but the simple story of man's daily life,that we can look to find its spirit reflected in his art.Religious types (stereotyped and lifeless in Byzantine art)had to be brought before the senses of the people in a

• St. Bonaventure, Legenda S. Francisci, cap. x.

234 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.living and still artistic form. We find this thoroughblending, this active intermingling of art and life in theChristian drama of the Middle Ages to have its parallel inGreece, where the artistic was also thus brought face toface with Nature and with life in the palæstra, and wherethe plastic attitudes of actors in the great Greek dramasmust have trained the eyes of the Greek sculptors andpainters. Moreover we have an analogous case in the development of Greek painting. It was in the secondhalf of the fifth century B.C. that real illusiveness wasgiven to painting by the introduction of foreshorteningandperspective, for purposes of scene paintings first developedby Apollodorus.We have learned from Dr. Waldstein how much Greekart seems to owe to the athletic games and the scenes inthe palæstra, if not of religious emotion, yet of knowledgeof the human form in action inspired by a noble intentionand for a lofty purpose. He begins by saying truly, that so long as the sculptor's art is entirely in the service ofreligious worship there is small chance of its freeing itselffrom conventional imperfections; the sculptor must bebrought face to face with man, and then he may re- construct his work out of the ideal combination of themost perfect forms which he has studied in man, but has never found together in one man. The first great taskwas that of bringing the artist down from conventionalityand abstract symbols of gods, to nature and to man. The next was to lead the artist through nature to theideal. In the first and earliest stages of the palæstra, the athletic games are a class of religious institutions without human interest. In the highest period this institutionhad a real national aim, to provide and encourage perfectphysical education for the youths and men who were to form the strength of the nation. Here then it wouldseem that the institution shook itself free from all religiousassociations, if such ever did form any integral portion ofits being. If it did not, we must look beyond the athletic games for the source of certain attitudes as of certainexpressions of the human countenance in Greek art, whichhave a distinctly religious character; the bowed head ofthe patient Psyche, the sublime submission of the Cnidian Demeter.MYSTERY PLAYS. 235In the early medieval period, and in the twelfth andthirteenth centuries, art may have gained much from themysteries and plays of the time which were pressed into the service of religion, and have been affected in much thesame manner as Greek art was by the athletic games; but the action in the Christian drama was concentrated on, andonly bore relation to, the religious idea. And it belongedto a religion which includes faith in such transfiguration and transmutation, or, at all events, transformation,of the human and the physical, which is the aim of artin its highest manifestations. This unity of dramaticaction and art with a religion based on the ideas of selfoffering, transfiguration and renewal, had never before beenseen.At every turn the same drama was offered to the eyeand ear, whether by carver, sculptor, painter, architect,musician, actor, or poet. The Mirror of Human Salvationwas the framework of the divine comedy, whatever form of language men chose to work it out in. It was thesource of the text, or, if we may use the word, the libretto,for such performances as the dramatic processions ofBethune, for the shows and passion plays of France, Italy,and Germany, and we find it to be so still inthe Ammergaumystery play. Thus in the scene of The Last Supper,this, which forms the central subject of the group in onepage of the Biblia Pauperum, is the scene enacted by theBavarian peasants. The two wings of the triptych, orpictures at each side on the page, are the types from the Old Testament. At Ammergau these are given astableaux-vivants, forming the background, displaying theIsraelites gathering manna in the wilderness, and Melchisedek offering bread and wine, while the explanatoryand illustrative texts on the scrolls in the pictures, arechanted by the chorus and its leader. 1st chant: " Mandid eat angels' food." 2nd chant: " Come eat of mybread, and drink of the wine which I have mingled."3rd chant: " Thou gavest them bread from Heaven for their hunger."The very costumes worn agree in many instances withthe medieval paintings, the man who personates theChrist appearing exactly as Van Eyck represents Him inhis pictures, with papal tiara, and rich tunic studded with236 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.pearls, stole and pastoral staff. The dramatic processionsof Bethune were also this very series of scenes from thelife of Christ, with the difference that both type and anti- type were enacted and not mere tableaux- vivants. Herethe performers belonged to the various guilds of the city,by whom scaffolds were erected in lines to right and leftof the street, those on the left to form stages for the types,those on the right for the antitypes.Universally as these texts seem to have been used, we donot mean that they supplied the only framework fordramatic representation.6The mother standing by the Cross, and the mother weeping over the body of her son, with the archetypal picturesof parental love and sorrow taken from Genesis in thebackground, are subjects descending to us from the earliestages of Christian worship. In the East, Mary's Lament;or, the Threnodia, ' was represented at Constantinople inthe fourth century. It was one of the earliest and simplestof the German mystery plays. We find it represented ina Book of the Gospels of the year 1100, preserved in theConvent of Vatopedi. It always forms one of the scenesof the Passion, painted in fresco on the left wall of theapse, in the churches of Mount Athos; till at length allthe sorrow and the passion of these subjects is taken upand uttered in the words of the hymn, Stabat Materdolorosa,' and finally it descends to us in the dramaticmusic of Rossini and Dvorjak.6Indeed it would appear that the origin of the sacredChristian drama may date as far back as to the very dawnof Christianity, and that the pagan drama, though it had fallen low, had never quite died out before the Christian arose. We read that Gregory Nazianzen, archbishop andpoet, * hoping to banish profane plays from the theatre of

• In the following verse translated from a poem of his by Newman,

there is more knowledge of art than in any passage we know of in Christian literature of this date:"As when the hand some mimic form would paint It marks its purpose first in shadows faint,And next its store of varied hues applies Till outlines fade and the full limbs arise."Mrs. Barrett Browning in her too short sketch of this poet, writes:" A noble and tender man was this Gregory, and so tender, because so noble. ... Half apostolical he was, and half scholastical; and while heMYSTERY PLAYS. 237Constantinople, had composed many sacred dramas whichhe intended to substitute for them, with hymns takingthe place of the chorus in the Greek dramas. Chrysostomalso wrote the dying Christ in Greek, between the years347 and 407 , which was represented, with the addition oftableaux-vivants, at Constantinople. Among other Christian fathers who dramatised sacred subjects was St. Avitusin the sixth century, who prepared a play on the fall ofAdam, entitled De Origine Mundi, de Originali Peccato et de Sententiâ Dei. A similar effort was made about theyear 990, when Theophylact, another patriarch, inventedor adapted to the stage certain plays called Fête des Fous,Fête de l'Ane, * Fête des Innocents, which were acted insilence, the performers appearing as mutes. This innovation is said to have originated in the desire of weaningthe people from Bacchanalian and calendary rites andother pagan ceremonies, by the substitution of Christianspectacles. The mystery plays of France and Englandappear to have arisen out of these performances. FredericBarbarossa is known to have presided at the performanceof a drama entitled ' The Arrival and Destruction of Antichrist ' at Tegernsee, not veryfar from the present Ammergau.The Harrowing of Hell ' is the first English mystery playthat has come down to us; † and in 1174 William FitzStephen, Monk of Canterbury, says, " London, for itstheatrical exhibitions has religious plays, either the6mused, on his bishop's throne, upon the mystic tree of twelve fruits, and the shining of the river of life, he carried, as Milton did, both hands fullof green trailing branches from the banks of the Cephissus, nay, from the very plane tree which Socrates sat under with Phædius, when they two talked about beauty to the rising and falling of its leaves. " See Greek Christian Poets, p. 29, Elizabeth Barrett Browning.

• The Prose de l'Ane is preserved with many other remarkable pieces,

in a manuscript at Sens. This work is not of the nature or characterthat the antiquaries, following Voltaire, have deemed it. They have eitherwilfully or involuntarily mistaken the parody for the original piececoming from the pen of the author, the learned and pious archbishop ofSens, Pierre de Corbeil. The writer is dealing with the important placeoccupied by this animal in Scripture from the Jewish ass first seen on thehills of Sichem and beyond Jordan and then at Bethlehem where it is associated with the Christian beast of burthen, who showed the triumphof the New Dispensation, bearing his Master in the gates of Jerusalem.Annales Archéo . vi. p. 304; Fête de l'Ane, ib. vol. vii. p. 26.† Hallam, Literature of Europe, p. 105.238 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.representations of miracles wrought by holy confessors orthe sufferings of martyrs; " and Geoffrey, afterwards Abbotof St. Albans, while teaching a school at Dunstable causedthe legend of St. Catherine to be acted there, Geoffreytaking part in the performance. The first dramatic writerof note in Italy was Albertino Mussato, who was born at Padua in 1260; but St. Francis, as we have seen, had someyears before initiated the sacred drama at the town of Grecio. *A comparison of the dates marking distinct epochs inthe history of the arts of the drama and of painting andsculpture goes far to prove that their growth was con- temporaneous; and here we are reminded of Mr. WatkissLloyd's interesting remarks on the relation of the masterpieces of Greek drama to contemporary graphic and plastic art. It was the same in Greece as in the Italy of theMiddle Ages, at the period when the drama both assumedits systematic form and sprung at once to its perfection.Celebrations, in which the entire State was represented inprocession, and recitations of the Homeric poems andmusical performances, gave moving and audible expressionto the general enthusiasm. Thus, it is characteristic ofcertain epochs of development of genius, that the arts arefound to advance concurrently, and the passion grows forcombining them. When, as in the following instances(Figs. 229 and 230), we see distinct evidence of the illustration of the symbols of one art in those of another,the interest of such objects is much enhanced by these considerations.In a series of lectures delivered in La Sorbonne byM. Magnin (1834-5), this author referred to variousillustrations of the drama, both pagan and Christian, to befound among the sculptured and painted monuments ofmediæval art in the south of France. † At Autun, M.Didron found a representation of a scene in a tragedy ofTerence on the front porch of a building in that town.The tragedy of the Ten Virgins, dramatised by the Dominicans, was produced at Eisenach in 1332. A high and healthy morality belongs tothis tragedy, and the drama may be taken as a fair index of the moral and religious conditions of the time in which it arose. See The OberAmmergau Passion Play, M'Coll, p. 22, 1880.+ See Annales Arch. vol. vii. p. 303.MYSTERY PLAYS. 239In the following illustration we have a scene fromthe mystery play of the " Acts of the Apostles and ofDionysius the Areopagite," performed in the Romanamphitheatre formerly standing in Bourges. This is oneof a series of miniatures illustrating the Life and Passionof St. Dionysius the Areopagite, which has been proved

Fig. 231.-MINIATURE XIV. CENT., BIBL. NAT. PARIS, FONDS LATIN NO. 5086 .by M. Didron to correspond in a remarkable manner with the directions for the mise en scène of the drama itselfgiven in another ancient MS. found by M. le Baron deGirardot. It illustrates the following incident in the drama. Dionysius has suffered martyrdom in companywith his friends Rusticus and Eleutherius, and angelshave borne their souls in a mantle up to Heaven. Regulus,

• The old Roman amphitheatre of Avaricum was standing in the six- teenth century, but destroyed in the seventeenth. See Ann. Archéol. xiii .

pp. 16, 62, 134, 185; xiv. pp. 14, 73.Bibl. Nat. No. 5286, Ancien fonds Latin, folio 51. Ann. Arch.xiv. 16.240 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.whom Dionysius had consecrated Bishop of Arles, wassaying mass one day, attended by a deacon and sub-deacon.When he had pronounced the Missa Est, he beheld thesouls of the three martyrs, under the form of three doves,descend and rest upon the crucifix before which he stood.This miniature is most curious as an illustration of theSacrifice of the Mass and the drama in one. The threesaints , Denis, Eleutherius, and Rusticus, have come down inthe form of birds, and are lighting upon the crucifix . Eachholds a scroll in his beak, on which the name is writtenby which the Bishop of Arles may recognise them. Allthe minor details are of interest; the flabellum formed ofpeaco*ck's eyed feathers; the great patina upheld in the air. The altar, covered by a large cloth with nothing onit but the crucifix, the missal, and the chalice covered bythe napkin. *6This mystery play of the Acts of the Apostles andSt. Dionysius ' should be studied by all who are interested in Christian iconography. Many of the mosaics atSt. Mark's, in Venice, would seem to be reproductions ofscenes in this drama, such as those in which Gondoforus,the Indian king, and Abanes, his provost-marshal, take apart; and the lists of Jews and members of the Synagogue named in the manuscripts of the dramatis personæ may guide us towards the identification of many hithertoanonymous figures in our churches.Another scene, corresponding to one in the drama of theActs of the Apostles, is represented in sculpture on theouter wall of the Cathedral of Paris, between the southerntransept and the apse. The subject is an incident occurring at the funeral of the Virgin, and is explained in aremarkable manner by the directions for the mise en scèneof this incident in the MS. of M. le Baron de Girardot.The directions to the stage-manager are as follows:-"Fault quelque bar pour porter le corps de ladicte dame au monu- ment." Fault le monument.66 Bellezeray, prince des Juifs, et autres se meetent en chemin pour"Miniature extrêmement curieuse sous le rapport symbolique et liturgique," writes M. Didron. Note the flabellum made of peaco*ck's feathers,the patina held by the sub-deacon, the chalice covered with a napkin,and the scrolls marking the name of each down.ILLUSTRATIONS OF MYSTERY PLAYS. 241aller empescher que le corps de lad[icte] dame ne soit mis au monu- ment. Les Juifs s'efforcent mectre la main au corps de la Vierge Marie pour l'oster aux apostres, et incontinant les mains leurs demeurentseiches et sont aveuglez par le feu que leur gectent les anges. Belzeray meetant les mains a la lectiere ou l'on porte la Vierge Marie et ses mains demeurent atachées a lad[icte] lectiere, et se geetent sur eulx force feu en maniere de fouldre, et doivent cheoir à terre les Juifs aveuglés."Les mains de Bellezeray doivent estre detachees et rejoinctes a sesbras, puis luy est baillée la palme qu'il porte aux autres dont ceulx qui voulurent croire furent illuminez, puis rapporta lad[icte] palme." *Fig. 232-BAS-RELIEF OF THE XIII. CENT. AT NOTRE DAME, PARIS.In the sculptured panel from Notre Dame (Fig. 230) wesee the figure of the Jewish prince represented, first as

• See Annales Archéol. vol. xiii . p. 135. The costumes were generally

those of the period in which the play was enacted. The Christ was dressed as a pontiff in papal tiara, wearing a rich tunic studded with VOL. II R242 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.laying hands on the Virgin's coffin; and, again, as maimed and prostrate, while his hands are seen fastened to thepall. Such examples of the mutual relations of the dramaand sculpture of the Middle Ages are of extreme interest.We should study such works as these mediæval stagedirections, published by Didron and his friends in theAnnales Archéologiques, * scene by scene, to compare thedetails of each furnished by them with the representationsof similar subjects in painting and sculpture, if we wouldlearn how far the grouping, scenic effect, and dramaticaction of the whole scene may have been influenced bythese performances, which had descended from the Greekto the medieval stage. Also, when examining as towhat were the influences at work that aroused Italian art,in the time of Giotto, and his school, from the death sleepof Byzantine formalism, may we not attribute much ofthe inspiration of the thirteenth and following centuries to the drama. The artists who witnessed at Florence theperformance of the " Electra " of Sophocles by AlessandraScala, † may have felt in this embodiment of noble womanhood, much as did the scholars and artists of Ireland in1835, when the " Antigone " of Sophocles was representedfor them by Helen Faucit. Their scholarship received animpetus, and their genius was warmed at sight of livingpassion infused into forms which before had but faintly been associated with the idea of life. “With the writings, "they said, " of the Grecian dramatists, it is true, we havelong been familiar; but their power and their beautyhave come down to us through books alone. ' Mute andmotionless ' that drama has heretofore stood before us;you, madam, have given it voice, gesture, life; you have19pearls, and with stole and pastoral staff, while in the scenes of the Nativity the Magi wore the costly dress of the knights and merchants of the time,rare foreign stuffs and velvet coats trimmed with fur, while the ordinary wore the costumes of citizens and peasants with pointed shoes and head- circlets of tinkling bells, all of which details are to be seen repeated in the miniatures of the early French and Italian MSS.

• Annales Archéol. vol. viii. pp. 272, 274.

See Walker, Drama in Italy, p. 49. In the person of Leo Baptista Alberti we find one who was dramatist, painter, sculptor and architect.His comedy of " Philodoxeos " appeared in his twentieth year. See Walker,ib. p. 32.INFLUENCE OF THE DRAMA. 243realized the genius and embodied the inspirations of theauthors and of the artists of early Greece, and have thusencouraged and instructed the youth of Ireland in thestudy of their immortal works. " *So, mute and motionless, stood the Christian drama also,and its long lines of angels, saints and martyrs, had forcenturies looked out with their fixed gaze from the wallsand domes of their solemn basilicas, till a like vivifyingand invigorating influence was brought to bear upon its art.

• See Essays on the Drama Theodore Martin, p. 26.

R 2244 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.MEDIEVAL ART AND THE ANTIQUE.In the discussions carried on by some writers in thepresent day as to the attitude of medieval Christian artin the presence of the antique, it has been asked whetherthe study of nature and of the antique, which were two factors in the art of the Renaissance, were not opposinginfluences in the beginning, however they may have, in theend, combined to produce great results; whether, at first,the studies of nature and the antique were not as rivalforces confusing the artist and marring his work. Whenwe follow the history of the gradual development of art,the signs of such opposition between the two styles seemto disappear; and the more we learn of art before Dante,the less reason we have for believing in the existence of these hard and fast lines between heathen and Christianmythography. We have seen in the course of this workhow, in the texts of the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis andBiblia Pauperum, tales from heathen mythology weretaken as types of Christian virtues contemplation, forti- tube, moral strife, and self- sacrifice. Christ Himselfborrows the image of the Good Shepherd from a heathenwriter, and St. Paul finds in the Isthmian games an image of the Christian course. So it was with the iconographyof the first Christian period. In the lives of the foursculptor-saints, Claude, Castory, Symphorian, Nicostratus,we find them working at genii, amorini, victories, &c.In early Christian places of worship, Orpheus, Psyche,Deucalion, Hermes, Ulysses, are seen side by side withChristian symbols and figures. In fact, one system oficonography appeared to dovetail into the other, and theuse of certain heathen images was never wholly abandoned,even down to the time of Dante.In the illuminated manuscripts, even of the tenthMEDIEVAL ART AND THE ANTIQUE , 245century, classic influences are seen to linger, and theminiature painter will dwell as fondly as Mantegnahimself, on antique bas-reliefs, sarcophagi, and architecture, and occasionally caryatide, or figures of nakedwarriors; but these are always treated as accessories, andkept in the background. In an illuminated manuscript of the eleventh century, " Sermons on the Festivals of theVirgin," mythological personifications of rivers are constantly occurring; in fact, such images never disappeared from Byzantine art.Lingering traditions of pagan mythology are constantly appearing on the church walls in the monasteries ofMount Athos, and elsewhere in Greece, as well as inRavenna. Thus, in the refectory of Vatopédi, we see thename Charon inscribed under the image of Death: thefigure resembles a skeleton, although the bones arestill covered by a shrunken skin. He holds a sickle inhis right hand, and a scythe in the left. We have seenan illustration of a portion of mosaic, dating, according toCiampini, from the year 314, which formed part of thepavement above referred to, in the Church at Pavia,dedicated by Constantine to St. Michael in Ticino, and thusdescribed by Ciampini (Vet. Mon. Tab. 11, fig. 2)."In this part, then, another tesselated work is seen, and it is seen in the pavement of the church of St. Michael Ticinus, in Ticino; an example of it has been made known to us by the most illustrious and reverend Don Franciscus Bellisomus, which he says he received from Don Marcellinus, ruler of the church of St. Nicolas, Moneta. Tothese men I acknowledge my obligation for their singular desire to enrich this collection of mine, a desire made known to me by such proofs. At what time this mosaic was made it is hard to find out."Carolus Sigonius, a celebrated writer of the last century, in the third book of his History of the Western Empire to the Year 314, says thatby popular report the Emperor Constantine the Great, after gaining a victory over the Franks, built that temple. Accordingly by this simple disclosure of a report, the time of the building of the temple is made doubtful. It is certain, however, that there is to be seen therea tesselated pavement made in a rude fashion, in which we see images both sacred and profane. In the midst of it are circles of various sizes,which form the middle part of the labyrinth, in the centre of which the well-known story of Theseus * slaying the Minotaur is represented,as the writing itself makes known, which says:—

• See Ciampini, Veter. Mon. tom. ii . pl. ii. See Ann. Archéol. vol. xv.

p. 231; vol. xvii. pp. 69-193.246 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.6666 (1st Inscr. )(2nd Inscr. )to the brave.'66Theseus entered, and slew the biform monster.'Savage am I, and fain would deal death-wounds" (3rd Inscr.) The proud one is laid low; the gentle one stands raised on high.' "M. Durand is of opinion that the church in which thismosaic was found is of the eleventh century (see Ann.Archéol. vol. xv. p. 231, note). Another such mosaicpavement was found in the lower church of St. Savinat Piacenza, * and another, held by some antiquarians todate from the fifth century, in the choir of the cathedralat Aosta. Another belonged to the cathedral of Acqui, aportion of which is now in the Museum of Turin.In the association of this subject with that of Goliathand David, a parallel is clearly drawn in early Christianart, between the deeds of the hero of Hebrew Scriptureandthat of the Greek mythology; and the study of a pavementsuch as this, along with the records we possess of thoseof Sta. Maria Maggiore at Vercelli (Lalande, Voyageen Italie, vol. i. , p. 265) , of the year 1040, and SanMiniato, A.D. 1207, is interesting as pointing to theorigin of that passage in the " Purgatorio " of Dante,canto xii. , where the poet treads a pavement wroughtwith like symbolic forms, both pagan and Christian.Didron was the first writer we know of who drew attention to the resemblance between this description of Dante'sand the older portion of the pavement of Siena cathedral.tThe path of Dante leads from the purgatorial gate, uptheMountain of Healing, on the summit of which is thecelestial Paradise, where he is met by Beatrice; and this portion ofthe pavement he describes, is at the turn in theway leading from the first to the second ledge, or corniceby which the steps in his ascent are marked. The pathof the mosaic master on the floor of Siena cathedral, leadsup the nave of the building from the porch to the gate ofthe sanctuary, where the pilgrim is met by the female form,

• Descrizione dei monumenti e delle pitture di Piacenza, p. 6. Parma, 1828.

† St. Savin. Sur le pavé, une mosaïque de pierres blanches et noirs offreles signes du zodiaque avec les inscriptions latines et en caractères romains,mais que les archéologues et quelques mosaïstes savants attribuent auxartistes grecs venus à Venise dans vii . siècle. Valéry, Voyages en Italie,ed. de Bruxelles, vol. i. liv. ii . ch. x. p. 27.See Vasari, ed. Bohn, i . 241-244; iv. 137, and note.PAVEMENT OF SIENA CATHEDRAL. 247symbolising Mercyand Gentleness, inscribed " Mansuetudo- Misericordia."The pavement of the first mountain level of Dante'svision corresponds to the fourth triforium or bay in themosaic floor of the cathedral, the images visible onboth pavements signifying Natural Law and HumanMorality, being drawn from pagan mythology. Here, as inthe cathedral at Ulm, and as in the monastery church ofIvirôn on Mount Athos, we have the forms of Greek philosophers, side by side with the sages and heroes of theHebrew Scriptures: Socrates, Crates, Epictetus, Aristotle,Seneca, and Euripides, along with the heathen allegoryof the Wheel of Fortune, the four phases of which aresymbolised by the form of a youth on the wheel-aspiring,throned, dethroned, and fallen.* The sibyls, paganprophetesses of Christ, are also here, though whether theybelong to the later portion of this pavement or not, Didron does not say.In the cathedral pavement the heathen subjects formthe background to the Hebraic. In that of Dante theyalternate, or the poet may intend that they are placed toleft and right, and so strike his eye as he advances, as itwere, up the imaginary nave, looking to the left and rightaisle:-Left Aisle.-Heathen.1. Briareus.2. Niobe.Right Aisle. -Hebraic.1. Lucifer.2. Nimrod.TE3. Arachne. 3. Saul.4. Eriphyle.5. Tomyris.6. Troy.4. Sennacherib.5. Judith.6. Jerusalem sacked.Here Briareus, who had seated himself next to Jove, ispunished as Lucifer, who would have equalled himself toGod; Niobe, who would have exalted herself above Latona,

• See Annales Arch. vol. xvi. p. 337, engraving of Fortune's Wheel.

The drawings of this pavement by Signor Leopoldo Maccari, Scultore dell'opera del duomo at Siena, have been acquired by the Fitzwilliam Museum,Cambridge. Mr. Sidney Colvin, following Signor L. Maccari, has given a history of this pavement in the Fortnightly Review; Mr. J. A. Symonds (Sketches in Italy and Greece, p. 49) also alludes to it.218 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.is punished as Nimrod, the ambitious builder of Babel.Arachne, who in her pride destroys herself, is comparedto Saul, who will die rather than fall into the Philistines'hands; Eriphyle, slain by her sons for greed and treachery,to Sennacherib, slain for like reasons by his sons; Tomyrisand Cyrus, Judith and Holofernes.Such was the pavement, wrought with warnings ofHeaven's judgments on evil, pride, treachery, greedand cruelty, which the poet bade Dante bend his gazeupon:-"To ruminate the bed beneath his feet."And all these images, he tells us, were with most " curiousskill of portraiture o'erwrought: "—"What master of the pencil or the styleHad traced the shades and lines, that might have made The subtlest workman wonder? Dead, the dead;The living seemed alive: with clearer view,His eye beheld not, who beheld the truth,Than mine what I did tread on, while I went Low bending."It is important just at this time to show that evenbefore the age of Dante both poets and artists drew theirimages from the classic as well as from the Hebrewwritings, since an erroneous opinion appears to be gainingground that art had to wait for the great antiquarian movement of the Renaissance at the close of the fifteenthcentury to show any knowledge of or sympathy with thewisdom and learning of the ancients. Some writers, indeed,would seem to trace the origin of the system of parallelismbetween heathen and Hebraic history to Dante, withwhom it certainly did not originate, however character- istic of his broad nature his adoption of it may seem.has been thought that Dante gave the idea to the mosaicworkers of Siena on the one hand, and, on the other, thathe derived it from them; but we have seen that longbefore, at Pavia, at Vercelli, and at Florence, the samesystem of parallelism was pursued, and in each instancethe moral significance of the images chosen was of the same lofty nature. And the divine strife with evil isequally symbolised by Theseus and the Minotaur, andItSHIELD OF ACHILLES. 249David with Goliath; types, of which the Temptationof Christ in the Wilderness, was the antitype. *In order that we may possibly follow out this systemof parallelism between heathen and Christian symbols,Didron, in a remarkable passage on the wheel windows ofthe French cathedrals, compares the symbolism in them with that of Homer in the shield of Achilles, and of Dantein the vision of the snow-white rose which concludes hisDivina Commedia. "These rose windows of France, atRheims, or Paris, Chartres, Laon, Soissons, or Strasbourg,are compared by him to a luminous star shining in thevast space of the cathedral, or to a large eye, reflectingheaven on the face of the sanctuary. Painted in the glass,and sculptured on the mullions of such windows, maybe found the summing up of all the story, given indetail, throughout the building; the Communion ofSpirits, the Hierarchy of Heaven, the Assembly of Saints,the Triumph of Christ, the Courts of Paradise, backto the wheel of human destiny and the Creation of Man."†Thus, he continues, the shield of Achilles, in Homer's18th book of the Iliad, is but a rose of concentric circles,filled with subjects forged upon the anvil of a god . Theouter circle is formed by the river of Ocean. Between the outer and the inner zones there is a space, set, as we maysay, with medallions. In one we have the City of Peace,with marriage feast and bridal song, music and dancing,and elders seated in the sacred circle, holding in theirhands staves from the loud-voiced heralds.In another, the City of War, which is besieged by twoarmies, " on the wall there stood, to guard it, the dearwives and children, and with these the old men, but therest went forth, and their leaders were Ares and PallasAthene, both wrought in gold, and golden was the vesturethey had on." They lie in ambush, and presently comethe cattle, and with them two herdsmen, playing on pipes,that took no thought of guile. The assailants fly to arms.A battle ensues, and strife. Tumult and fell Death

• The drawings by Signor Leopoldo Maccari, Scultore dell' opera del duomo at Siena, have been acquired by the Fitzwilliam Museum,

Cambridge.† See Annales Arch. vol. x. pp. 2, 16.250 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHYappear, and the raiment on her shoulders was red with theblood of men.In a third medallion we see, as it were, a vintage wheredark purple grapes hang on silver poles, and maidens andstriplings in childish glee bear the sweet fruit in plaited baskets. And a dancing place was there like unto thatwhich once in wide Knosos, Daidalos wrought for Ariadneof the lovely tresses.If, says Didron, we turn from this passage in Homer to that of Dante at the close of the Paradiso where the electare ranged, circle within circle, we find this poet using therose as his symbol. " Then she " (i.e. Beatrice) " showedme all the sacred host of those whom Christ espoused in His blood ranged in the form of a snow-white rose. Thusboth poets have framed their symbols in a wheel or circle,just as the architect of the Middle Ages framed his in the round window. As the poet's gaze was fixed on the riverof the water of life, and as he bathes his eyes in itsrefining wave, he beholds its course turning to a circle,with which the petals of his rose unfold, which correspond to the mullions and foliate traceries of the cathedralwindow. This river's banks are painted with springflowers, which are gradually transformed to angels, rangedaround the courts of heaven, and Beatrice draws him on,as one who is silent and yet fain would speak, that he may behold how vast this white-robed company, how great thecircuit of this heavenly city, how filled its seats that few are left to need them.We have dwelt thus long on the system of parallelisms between the images of medieval and antiqueart, because we hold that it was not out of discord andenmity, but rather in the recognition of such harmonies,such broad unity of moral significance, that the greatnessof Renaissance Art derived its origin; certainly no sign ofthe rivalry, alluded to above, can be found in the writing of Dante. In the first awakening of the poetic spirit it isimpossible to over-estimate the influence that genius suchas that of Dante must have exercised upon the art of hisown date and the years immediately succeeding him.

• See Dante, Paradiso, canto xxx. 1. 61 , 85, 90, 100, 105, 114, 125;

xxxi. 1 1, 45, 95, 125.INFLUENCE OF DANTE UPON ART. 251We may bring forward an instance in Venice in illustration of this. A few years after Dante died at Ravenna,the noble capital symbolising Justice was carved in the Ducal Palace of Venice. And M. Didron has shownhow closely in this instance the poet was followed by thesculptor.In canto x. of Purgatory, Dante, mounting to the secondcornice or story of his ascent, perceives a bas-relief carvedin white marble, representing the incident of Trajan andthe widow. The emperor, riding forth from the citygates, is stopped by a widow who, seizing his horse by thebridle, demands justice on the murderers of her son, andTrajan, yielding to her prayer, stops in the midst of hisroyal progress and administers justice forthwith. * Again,Dante shows Trajan, seated beneath the brows of thesymbolic eagle (image of imperial justice), having won hisseat in Paradise by this act of mercy. Dante has alsonamed as the great representative of law and justice theemperor Justinian, chief of that band of spirits whomBeatrice desired him to " trust as gods." Turning to thecapital of the Ducal Palace, sculptured with the figuressymbolising Justice, we find the inscription Justinia[ n]beneath a figure representing the great Byzantine emperoras an angel of justice, winged and crowned, seated ontwo lions, and among the other figures that surroundthe capital we find those of Trajan on horseback, armedand holding weapons in his right hand, while the widowis seen on her knees before him, and below is the inscrip- tion: TRAIANO ĪPERADORE CHE FE JUSTITIA A LA VEDOVA.But this is not the only instance in which these bassirilievi imagined by the poet on the border of the secondrock in Purgatory were wrought into form by mediævalart. The Annunciation, painted by Marcello Venusti fromMichael Angelo's design in the Sacristy of San GiovanniLaterano, was also a development of the poet's conception.His genius foresaw that which the genius of two centuries later was able to fulfil.We must now draw to a close this imperfect sketch ofthe Medieval systems of Image writing, in which we

• See Ann. Archéol. vol. xxii. p. 207. Two pictures of the Veronese

School, illustrating this subject, have been lately added to the National Gallery of London, Nos. 1135, 1136.252 CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY.have endeavoured to show that the composer's aim in histreatment of the Christian epos in Western art was neither historical, chronological, or dogmatic. His aimwas symbolism, and in the successive schemes we haveindicated as existing from that of the Catacomb paintingsin Rome to the medieval Mirrors of Man's Salvation, andof Universal Nature down to that of Michael Angelo inthe Sistine Chapel, we find a consecutive series of symbolsresting on the plot of the great story of divine strife inMan and his redemption.The system was a fertile and a long enduring one, because it belonged to a religion not only of ideals and theoriesbut of facts and deeds. The events, recorded in the Bibleand in the art of this religion, formed a chain of symbols corresponding with experiences in the soul's history ofeach individual, but they still remained real events and real experiences in the physical and material history ofhumanity, as well as in the moral and spiritual life. The death upon the Cross was a fact, but one that would have lost its aim had it not ever since been mirrored in the inner life of Man.But when at the present day we approach such subjectswe are met at every turn by the danger of falling intoplatitude and cant, and it would seem as if an entirelynovel phraseology must be invented for the religious poetry and art of the future. Yet the sorrow is thesame, and the hope the same, which medieval art symbolised by the archetypal forms of Genesis as by thosebeloved of Christ, and we do but wait for some sincerereligious movement for a noble iconography to be againevolved, believing that Christianity is a storehouse, in- exhaustible, of germs which it does but take successiveintellectual atmospheres to develop.APPENDIX I.ADDITIONAL NOTES.

APPENDIX I.ADDITIONAL NOTES.seen.I."ATTRIBUTES OF THE TRINITY," p. 69, vol. ii.THE Trinity painted by Francesco di Pesello or Pesellino isaltogether the most magnificent symbol of this mystery we haveThis painting, the masterpiece of a great artist, and perhapsthe finest work of its time, now hangs in room xiii. of the NationalGallery, London-No. 727. The Father, surrounded by cherubimand flaming seraphim, supports a crucifix above the clouds. A doveupon His breast seems to hover over the Saviour's head. Asolemn landscape with level bands of dark cloud along the skycompletes the sublime composition. The arrangement of thefigures corresponds with fig. 144, p. 69, supra, taken from a Frenchminiature in a 13th century MS. in the collection of the Duke ofAnjou, in the National Library, Paris.FIG. 150. THE TRINITY, THREE PERSONS, EACH IN HUMANFORM, p. 81.Two interesting examples of this treatment of the symbol havebeen brought before my notice since this work went to press,by Sir Frederic Burton, who has kindly given me the followinginformation as to their origin. They are miniatures, painted byJehan Foucquet, from a Prayer-book made for Maître EtienneChevalier, Treasurer under Charles VII. and Louis XI. , belongingto Herr Ludwig Brentano, in the Taunus Platz, * Frankfort-on- theMaine, and are said to be the finest of his productions. Foucquetvisited Italy, and was in Rome in 1445. But his works show noOn Jean Foucquet, see Renaissance des Arts à la Cour de France, vol. i.pp. 155, 691. Paulin Paris, MSS. français de la Bibl. du Roi, vol. ii . p. 260.256 APPENDIX I.sign of Italian influence in any respect. He painted Eugenius IV.in a portrait once in the Minerva at Rome. In the BibliothèqueNationale in Paris is a Josephus illuminated by him at least inpart, and in the Royal Library at Munich a Boccaccio, done for the same Maître Etienne.II.WINGLESS ANGELS, p. 93.Mrs. Jameson (Sac. and Leg. Art, i . p. 58) gives a wingless angelby Francia, singing the Virgin's praise to a mandola. The angelswho visit Abraham in Raphael's painting of this subject are withoutwings.Mrs. Jameson observes: " Raphael, here as elsewhere a true poet,has succeeded in conveying, with exquisite felicity, the sentimentof power, of a heavenly presence, and of a mysterious significance.The three youths, who stand linked together hand in handbefore the patriarch, with such an air of benign and superior grace,want no wings to show us that they belong to the courts of heaven,and have but just descended to earth. Murillo (in his painting inthe Sutherland Gallery) gives us merely three young men travellers,and has set aside wholly both the angelic and the mystic characterof the visitants. "The angels of Michael Angelo, in the " Last Judgment," are alsowithout wings.III.ANGELS OF BOTTICELLI.THE ALLEGED HERESY IN THE " ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN."Since much interest has been expressed about the angels oncecondemned as heretical in the painting known as the Palmieri Botticelli, now in the National Gallery, London, we venture to offer ashort account of its curious history, as well as of the life of thelearned Florentine for whom the work was executed.Matteo Palmieri was a distinguished citizen in Florence, holdinga high position there about the year 1470. He was ambassadorfrom the Florentine Republic to King Alfonzo of Naples, alsoADDITIONAL NOTES. 257deputy in the name of the Republic to the Fathers of the GeneralCouncil held under Eugenius IV. The house of his family stoodnear the Spezieria delle Rondini, in Florence; and a shield bearinghis arms—a palm-tree between two lions rampant-was inserted in the wall. As an author, Palmieri seems to have been muchesteemed. He wrote (1) La Vita di Niccolo Acciajuoli; (2)Trattato della Vita Civile; (3) De Captivitate Pisarum Historia;(4) Chronicon seu de Temporibus, Cronica dalla Creazione delMondofin all' anno 1449. In addition to these published works,Matteo held another in reserve, the story of which recalls that ofthe little book bequeathed by our own George Herbert to " his dearbrother Ferrar," with a message telling him that in it he shouldfind " a picture of the many spiritual conflicts " that had passedbetwixt God and his soul before he could subject it to his Master'swill, and adding that " if he can think it may turn to theadvantage of any poor dejected soul, let it be made public; if not let him burn it." Matteo's work was a poem of three cantoswritten after the manner of Dante in terza rima, and entitled " LaCittà di Vita." It was kept secret while he lived, and laid uponhis bosom in the grave. Another copy had been left by Matteo inthe Medicean Library under the Proconsul's care, with directionsthat the codex should not be read by any one during the writer'slifetime. In it the author relates how a Sibyl appears to him inmiddle life, and, winning his soul by speech of all things beautiful,and showing him a vision of the Elysian Fields, she draws him onto follow her through Hell to Heaven. She reads for him the bookof Nature and the Past, and declares the order of the stars andplanets, and the way of Life." Se è mi vien gratia infusa dal EternoVOL. II.Per darmi Lume da la sancta luceIn Ciel mi guidi, et mostrimi lo ' nferno;La gran Città di Vita che conduce Ciò che creò quel Padre la governa Canto col male ben vi si riduce Et certo facil fiame, se supernaVirtù mi chiama ad sì degno lavoroEt senza quella in van convien si cerna."Come mi fu di cosi fare offertoVidi ad gli stremi d' una selva oscura Grato splendor da Ciel di nuovo aperto Levami gli occhi ad quella luce pura.258 APPENDIX I.Et chiari gli affisai nello splendoreEt più non m' era selva sepultura Parlando quella con divin fervore La luce dixe tutti vi conducePer la via mena, sempre senza errore."66 The fate of the poem after publication was not so happy as mighthave been hoped. Misnamed by some The Sibyl of Palmieri," byothers a " Treatise on Angels, " the author was condemned by oneparty for holding the philosophy of Pythagoras, while by others he was accused of Arianism.Palmieri died in 1475; and the painter Sandro Botticelli was atthe zenith of his power in the year 1470, about which time it wouldappear that he was commissioned by Palmieri to paint the altarpiece for his family chapel in the church of S. Pietro Maggiore, inFlorence, the subject of which was to be drawn from the “ Città diVita." Such was the origin of this picture of the Assumption ofthe Virgin, in which are shown the three circles composed of divineforms of prophets, saints, martyrs, angels, and all the heavenlyhost, while below, the towns of Florence and Pistoia lie in the calmsunlight, and Matteo and his wife are seen kneeling in the foreground.Among other accusations of heresy brought against the poemwhich inspired this work, Richa states that Palmieri followed thecondemned opinion of Origen more by poetic licence than fromtheological sentiment, feigning that our bodies are animated by theangels-by those, that is to say, whom he falsely supposes to haveremained neutral when Lucifer fell, and whom the Almighty,willing to prove them once more, compelled to unite themselves tohuman bodies here below. And, further, his accusers suspectedthat Palmieri, in displaying, by means of the picture, hiserroneous opinions over the most sacred spot in his chapel, haddesired to give or to usurp the sanction of the Church to thoseopinions; in fact, to palm off upon the devout his heretical viewsas consistent with the Canons of the Church. The result was thatfor many years this great painting of Sandro Botticelli wasinterdicted and kept covered from view.Both Palmieri and Botticelli doubtless owed much to the inspiration of Dante. About the year 1481, Botticelli not onlycommented on Dante, but, with Baldini, executed in the then newart of engraving a series of illustrations of the " Divina Commedia."ADDITIONAL NOTES. 259It is impossible to contemplate the painting in question withoutrecalling Canto xxx. in the " Paradiso," where the Poet enters theEmpyrean, and first beholds the Court of Heaven. In these threecircles, " which seem as if encompassing the light, but are indeedencompassed by it, " those saintly bands are seen " in fashion like asnow-white rose," while angels mingle with the crowd of saints andmartyrs " whispering the peace and ardour which they won from that soft winnowing. "Standing before this picture the lines rise to our memory—" And as a pilgrim when he rests Within the temple of his vow, looks roundIn breathless awe, and hopes some time to tell Of all its goodly state; e'en so mine eyesCoursed up and down along the living light- Now low, and now aloft, and now around,Visiting every step. Looks I beheld,Where charity in soft persuasion sat;Smiles from within and radiance from above,And in each gesture, grace and honour high."IV.DEMONS OF FLOODS, p. 116.In the old rituals of Provence the dragon, carried in the rogationprocessions as a symbol of heresy, bore the name of Gargouille; itis now applied to chimæras, dragons, and monsters, wrought intowaterspouts; first appearing in England in the early Englisharchitecture. One of these figures, at Lincoln, is called the " Devillooking over Lincoln." Alexandre Dumas, in his novel of " LeComte de Monte Christo " (vol. ii. p. 47, ed. 1873), alludes to theprocession of Tarasque.V.DEVIL AS A LEARNED PROFESSOR, p. 128.Among the stage directions for the performance of the Mysteryplay of the Acts of the Apostles we read: " Fault des lunettes pourSathan." " This," writes M. Didron, " is a curious detail of theDante, Paradiso, canto xxxi. 1. 39. (Translated by Cary. )$ 2260 APPENDIX I.costume of Satan as represented in the sixteenth century, whenevery old man wore spectacles."At Bourges in 1536 we read of the performance of the Holy Actsof the Apostles within the old Roman theatre. The performancelasted forty days. The amphitheatre was covered in and veiledover, so as to protect the spectators from weather and sun, andpainted excellently in gold, silver, azure, and other rich colours.The Chapters of the Cathedral and St. Chapelle have lent from theirstores rich costumes and vestments.The performance (monstre) commenced with furies, who issuedfrom the fire like a plague of flies. Then four little demons withgilded bells and wings always in motion. Following them sixdevils clothed in velvet of divers colours, little serpents, lizards,snakes, and other beasts-" faictes di broderie et bien enrichies ";others followed with fire issuing from their nostrils and ears.Then came a great dragon, twelve feet long, ever-moving head,eyes, and tail, and spurting fire from his mouth.66As regards the history of the Devil, nothing can be morecurious than the information to be gained from these texts of theMystery of the Acts of the Apostles, " including the tenth book,which contains the history of the martyrdom of St. Dionysius; andM. Didron stated it to have been his intention to transcribe andannotate them in his " History of Demons. ” In the mystery playof St. Quentin, enacted in the collegiate church of St. Quentin,the Hell scenes must have been very striking. The choir ofthis church in the north of France, west of Caen, is the onlyoriginal portion of the building which still remains; it datesfrom the year 1257. The play was enacted there about the year1350. At the tidings of the birth of Christ, which reach the ear ofthe parents of St. Quentin at the moment of his birth, and at thetime when Diocletian, sinking under the weight of authority,on Maximian to share his throne, the depths of Hell are roused;Lucifer, Satan, Ashtaroth, Leviathan, Beelzebub, Cerberus, and aless familiar devil, Berith, meet in counsel. They determine totempt Maximian, and whisper hatred of Christianity in his ear.(See " Annales Archéologiques,” vol. xv. p. 29.)callsADDITIONAL NOTES. 261VI.THE TEMPTATION OF ST. PAPHNUTIUS, p. 129, vol. ii.This episode in the scenes of the Hermitage in the Thebaidhas been illustrated by Lasinio, Pitture a Fresco del Campo Santo,plate c. , and explained by Rosini in the text that accompaniesthe work.The painter, he tells us, would shew that the Tempter, whetherdisguised as learned professor, or in the form of a woman, mayfollow man even into the wilderness, and there, either throughterrors or enticements, seek to divert the best from their sacredoccupations. The figure kneeling to the right, and thrusting hishands into the flames, is shown to be the blessed Paphnutius, whoadopts this expedient rather than yield to the attractions ofthe graceful woman who kneels behind. She, in the second scene,stricken by the judgment of heaven, falls senseless to the ground;but (in the third scene) revived through the prayers of the Saint,she renounces her evil life, and, kneeling, commends herself to God,that He may pardon her sin and receive her among His followersconsecrated to His service.VII.FRESCOES-CAMPO SANTO, p. 165, vol. ii.In the early part of the fourteenth century, the Lorenzettiillustrated hermit life on the walls of the Campo Santo. In 1370the frescoes of the trials of Job were executed by Francesco ofVolterra.The three upper scenes in the series illustrating the life of St.Raniero are nowfound to have been executed by Andrea da Florentia,and the three lower to have been by Simone of Siena, and continuedby Antonio Veniziano in 1386. In 1391 Spinello Aretino laboured atthe scenes from the lives of SS. Ephesus and Pontus. Buffalmacco,or, as he is now called, Buonamico Cristofani painted the Passion,Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Ascension. It is now held that thefigures of Macarius and the hermits, formerly assigned to Orcagna,are the work of the Lorenzetti. (Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Hist.Paiuting, vol. i. , p. 445.)262 APPENDIX I.By many authorities the name of Orcagna is now dismissedfrom the honours of the Campo Santo, because it is held that thestyle of these frescoes evinces a Sienese rather than Florentine character.VIII."MERCURY AND MICHAEL," p. 181, vol. ii.Gem. Chalcedony, carved, ring collection of the Grand Duke ofTuscany. Latin inscription. Michael-i.e. , Like unto God. Goriremarks upon this gem:-66' Mercury sitting on a heap of stones with the caduceus, and his astronomical sign representing the caduceus and two marks. Aco*ck is standing beside him, the symbol of watchfulness. Thisgem was inscribed by the Basilidian heretics, or the followers ofPriscillianus, who added names of holy angels to those of the impureidols of gods, Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, Serapis, as one may see inch. v. of Chifflet, tab. xxi. , who has brought forward this one alsoamong the Abraxa gems, seeing that on this gem Mercury isrepresented, not standing upright as is frequently seen on coins,gems, and old seals, but sitting down on heaped stones. I think itmeans Mercury of the roads, or the guardian of the roads, such asPausanias has described in bronze. sitting among the Corinthianson the road leading to Lachæum, with a ram helping him;because one special office of Mercury was believed to be to guardand increase the flocks. The ancients used to put on theirroads a Mercury as the god who ruled over commerce, in orderthat in business they might obtain prosperous journey and return.Who also, when they went on a journey, used to heap up stonesand crown the heaps; to which Tibullus has borne witness in these lines:" For I adore whether a deserted heap in the fields Or an old stone on the cross-roads which holds the flower-wreaths.'Moreover old monuments shew Hercules the companion of Mercury as guide and guardian of journeys. " (See Gori, Inscript.Antiqs. 1, p. 1. tab. iii. 1.)APPENDIX II."BYZANTINE GUIDE TO PAINTING."TRANSLATED INTO FRENCH FROM A GREEK MANUSCRIPTBY DR. PAUL DURAND;AND FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISHBY MARGARET STOKES.M. Durand's translation of this work from the Greek was enrichedwith many interesting notes by M. Didron. They appear here onlyin an abridged form, for the editor found that the substance of manyof them was worked into other printed writings of his, which havebeen incorporated in this volume, so that to have printed them inextenso would have been needless repetition.[ 265 ]APPENDIX II.(See pp. 189-191. )" BYZANTINE GUIDE TO PAINTING."SECOND PART. *HOW THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAWARE REPRESENTED.ON THE NINE CHOIRS OF ANGELS.The choirs of holy angels are nine in number, according to St.Dionysius the Areopagite, and are divided into three orders:-First Order.-Thrones, Cherubim, Seraphim.The Thrones are represented as fiery wheels surrounded by wings.These wings are filled with eyes: the whole figure symbolises a royalThrone.†The Cherubim are represented with a head only, and two wings.The Seraphim with six wings, two of which rise towards the head,two descend to the feet, two are outspread for flight; they bear theflabellum (see note, p. 135 supra) in each hand, with this inscription:"Holy, holy, holy." Thus they appear to the prophet Isaiah.How to represent the Tetramorph. —They have six wings, angel'sface and head surrounded by nimbus; in their hands they hold theGospels against their breast. There is an eagle between the two

• The first part only refers to the technique of the painter's art, and has therefore been omitted from this work.-ED.

In the convent church of Cesariani on Mount Hymettus the Trinity is represented in fresco. The Father, an aged man; the Son, a man of thirty-five years; the Spirit as a dove. The bare feet of the Father andSon rest on a fiery circle with wings of fire, just as the Greek figure thechoir of angels surnamed Thrones. This winged and flaming wheel is as it were the throne of the Divine feet. Ezek. x. 12, 13. See pp. 91, 98, supra.266 APPENDIX II.wings that rise above their head, and a lion by the right wing, andan ox by the left. These three symbolic animals look upwards, andhold the Gospels between their feet. Thus the Tetramorphs appearto the prophet Ezekiel.Second Order, surnamed Government. —Dominations, Virtues,Powers.They wear albs down to the feet, golden girdles and green stoles.They wear rings of gold upon the right hand, and hold this seal inthe left: XThird Order.-Principalities, Archangels, Angels.They are represented in soldiers' dress with golden girdles. Theyhold javelins with hatchets in their hands. The javelins end in lance-heads.Fall of Lucifer.*Heaven. Christ seated like a king upon His throne, holding theGospel open at these words: " I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven." All around are choirs of angels filled with profounddread. Michael stands in the midst holding a scroll on which iswritten, " Let us stand in fear; let us here adore the King our God. "Below are seen mountains, a vast crater beneath which is inscribedthe word " Tartarus. " Lucifer and all his army fall from heaven.The angels above are full of beauty; those below are angels of darkness; lower still they are darker and blacker; still lower, they arehalf angels, half demons; finally they are altogether black andhideous demons. At the bottom and in the midst of the abyssLucifer, most fearful and blackest of all, lies forward on the ground,looking upward.Creation of Adam.Adam, young, beardless, naked, upright. The Eternal Father,surrounded by dazzling light, stands before him, sustaining him bythe left hand. Trees and divers animals around. Above, the skywith sun and moon.Lady Eastlake remarks that the Greek Church, according to the' Guide, ' gives in greater detail the process of " brutification." She quotes the whole of the scene of the " Fall of Lucifer."THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 267Adam gives names to the Animals.Paradise, with various trees and little flowers. Adam seated inthe midst; one hand outstretched the other across his knees. Beforehim the cattle and the creatures of the earth, who gaze upon him.Formation of Eve.Paradise as above. Adam, naked, asleep, his head resting uponhis hand. Eve comes forth from Adam's side, her arms outstretched in the air. Before her, the Eternal Father resplendent inlight; He sustains her with His left hand and blesses her with theright.Fall of Adam and Eve.Paradise as above. Adam and Eve below, and naked. Beforethem a great tree like a fig-tree covered with fruit; a serpententwined around it, with head turned towards Eve. Eve gathersthe fruit with one hand, and with the other offers it to Adam, whoaccepts it.Adam and Eve cast out.Paradise as above. Adam and Eve naked; they have twinedthe leaves of a fig-tree round their waists. They fly, looking backwards. A fiery angel, with six wings and flaming sword, pursuesthem. *Lamentation of Adam and Eve.Paradise closed. A fiery sword before the door. Adam and Eveare seated close by, wailing and tearing their hair.Adam digs the ground.Adam, armed by a double-toothed pickaxe, digs the soil; Eve,seated opposite. holds a distaff and winds thread on her spindle.Birth of Cain.A grotto. Eve within, laid upon her mantle. Adam, the firstfather, seated; he holds Cain, an infant in swaddling clothes.Birth of Abel.Agrotto. Eve, laid upon her mantle. Adam washes Abel in abasin. Cain pours water out of a vase.This is a seraph. Sometimes St. Michael himself is represented here,as guardian of Paradise.268 APPENDIX II.Cain ploughs the ground.Cain, young, beardless, in a field with two oxen under a yoke andplough. With one hand he holds the plough, and with the otherhe goads the oxen. He may also be seen reaping the corn.Abel with his sheep at pasture.Abel, young, beardless, carrying a staff; a flock of sheep before him.Sacrifice of Cain and Abel.An altar. Above, a sheep burning; the flame rises to the sky.The righteous Abel close by, raising his hands and eyes to heaven.Another altar at the side, on which a sheaf of corn is burning; Cainbefore it with his hands covering his face; the altar-flame bendsround towards him like an arch.Cain killing Abel.Mountains. Abel, wounded and stretched upon the ground; Cain,farther on, holds a dagger.Adam and Eve weepfor Abel.Abel thrown down upon the ground; blood flows from his head.Adam, with grey hair, and Eve weep for their son. An angel says toAdam on a scroll: " Weep not; he will revive at the last day.”Noah receives from God the order to build the Ark.Noah, below, looks upwards. Above, the sky. A ray falls onNoah; in the midst of this ray there are these words: " Buildthee an ark of gopher wood, for I am going to send the deluge.For, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth.”Noah builds the Ark.A great ship; Noah, in front, holding a vase, lays a coat of pitchupon this wooden vessel. His sons calk it, others square it withthe hatchet. The women are in the ark; the men outside: someeat, drink, and sing with the women, others are mocking at Noah.Fallow beasts, birds, and all kinds of animals enter the ark.The Deluge.Agreat sheet of water; many drowned men. In the midst ofTHE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 269the waters the tops of mountains may be seen; the ark rests on oneof them. Noah opens a window, and holds a dove in one hand.Sacrifice of Noah.Mountains. The Ark on a height; fallow beasts, domesticanimals, birds coming out of the ark. Outside is an altar uponwhich a sheep, with other unblemished animals, clean beasts andclean fowl and birds are laid. Noah with his sons and their wivesstand round, their hands raised to Heaven.Noah plants the VineSome men are digging, others turn up the earth with a hoe.Noah, behind, holds the stock of the vine with one hand while heplants several with the other. *The Intoxication of NoahHouses. Noah, seated, holds a jug and drinks the sweet wine.Further on, he is again seen asleep and naked. Two of his sons,Seth (sic: Shem? ) and Japhet, bear a garment on their shouldersand walk towards him backward. Behind, Ham looks at Noah,and points him out to the two brethren.Building ofthe Tower of Babel.A fortified city and a very lofty tower, on which men are engagedin building. Some have hammers, others divers utensils; otherscarry bricks; others water; others mortar; others burn the bricks.Many clouds are above the tower. Fiery tongues fall separatelyon each of the workmen.Abraham receives God's command to quit his country.Abraham, standing below, looks upwards. Above is the sky. Aray descends towards the patriarch. In the midst of this ray these words are written: "Get thee out of thy country and from thykindred, unto a land that I will shew thee."Abraham going into Egypt.Abraham riding, Sarah behind him.at the gate of which are men watching them.Before them is a city,

• This is a favourite subject in the vine districts. It appears on the

fine stained glass windows of the sixteenth century, in the church of Epernay in Champagne.270 APPENDIX II.Pharaoh, having taken Sarah, Abraham's wife, is reproached by God.The palace. King Pharaoh asleep on a golden bed; above, an angel, bearing a sword, fills him with terror. Sarah in a cornerpraying.Abraham, leading away his wife, whom Pharaoh has respected,turns towards the desert.The palace. Pharaoh seated upon a throne; soldiers around.Abraham, holding Sarah by the hand, stands before him; the kingshows her to him. Farther on, Abraham riding, with Sarah behindhim. Lot and his slaves eating with him. Sheep and otheranimals.Abraham having conquered Chedorlaomer and his companions,delivers Lot.Soldiers are seen pursuing other soldiers and a king: they cut themin pieces. Abraham, armed in the midst of them, holds Lot withone hand. Behind them horses, sheep, oxen.Melchisedek comes before Abraham.The righteous Melchisedek, arrayed in a sacerdotal vestment,hoids plates containing three loaves and a flask of wine; Abraham,dressed as a warrior, stands before him, with Lot. Other soldiers,horses and oxen.Hospitality of Abraham.Houses. Three angels * seated at table, having on a plate beforethem, an ox's head, loaves, besides meats in other dishes, withflasks of wine and cups. On their right, Abraham with a covereddish; on the left Sarah brings another with a dressed fowl.Burning of Sodom.Three angels look down on the earth out of the midst of clouds;flames descend from these clouds. Below are houses, burnt andin ruins; men's dead bodies seen among them. Upon a mountainLot is seen flying with his two daughters. Behind is his wife, whiteas salt, turned back.See vol. i. of this work, p. 52, and fig. 19, p. 54.THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 271Sacrifice of Abraham.Abraham, on the summit of a mountain, ties his young son Isaacon the wood; he holds the sacrificial knife. Above, an angel pointsto the lamb caught in the bush by the horns, and says to him:Abraham, Abraham, lay not thine hand upon thy child! " Atthefoot of the mountain two youths hold an ass harnessed.66Isaac blessing Jacob.Houses. Isaac, very aged, on a bed; near him a table coveredwith viands. Jacob, young, on his knees before him. Isaac holdsJacob by one hand and blesses him with the other. Esau may beseen in the distance on a mountain, holding his bow and hunting animals.Jacob's Ladder.The patriarch Jacob, asleep. Above him a ladder reaching to heaven. The angels of the Lord ascend and descend upon thisladder.Joseph's Dream.Joseph, a beardless youth, is sleeping. Above him shine sun andmoon and eleven stars. Before him twelve sheaves; one is upright,the others make obeisance to it as if in worship.Joseph sold by his brothers to the Ishmaelites.A pit; inside of it the beardless Joseph. Two of his brothershold him by the arms and lift him up out of the pit. The otherbrothers and the sheep stand close by. The Ishmaelites, with thecamels, count out money on a stone, which the others take.Joseph leaves his garment andfliesfrom sinA palace. A woman on a couch, seizing Joseph by his garment.Joseph escapes and leaves his garment in her hands.Joseph in prison explains the dreams of the Chief Cupbearer and the Baker.A prison. In the midst, Joseph; two men, kneeling before him,seem to address him. The one carries a tray on his head full ofeatables; birds fly above and feed upon them. The second bearsa cup in one hand; in the other he crushes a bunch of grapes.272 APPENDIX II.Joseph explaining Pharaoh's dreams.A palace. The king asleep upon a golden bed. Mountains andriver outside the palace. Near the river seven kine, well- favouredand fat-fleshed, feed in a meadow; seven black and lean kine comeup out of the river. Near that seven ears of corn ripe and good,and seven others thin and blasted. Further on still the king seatedon his throne and Joseph before him, saying on a scroll: " The sevenwell-favoured and fat-fleshed kine are seven fruitful years; the seventhin kine are years of famine. "Joseph established by Pharaoh as master of the land ofEgypt.Pharaoh seated on a throne surrounded by soldiers; before him,Joseph seated on a golden chariot drawn by two horses. A mansounds a trumpet before him; behind him a troop of soldiers bearinglances, accompanied by a multitudinous crowd.Joseph adored by his Brethren.A palace. Joseph the patriarch, seated like a king upon histhrone; his ten brothers kneel before him. Beneath the palace arebeasts of burthen loaded with sacks.Joseph making himselfknown to his Brothers.A palace. Within, Joseph embraces his brethren. Outside isseen the desolation of Joseph's brethren; beasts of burthen; sacksoverturned on the ground; soldiers seizing them.soldiers draws a silver cup from Benjamin's sack.One of theseJoseph sets forth to meet his father Jacob and his brethren.A city. Outside, soldiers, officers, knights; in font a horse, withgold-embroidered saddle and golden bridle, is led by two soldiersin raiment of wrought gold; before them Joseph, on foot, embraceshis father Jacob. The brethren are behind Jacob. Beasts ofburthen laden. Chariots with women carrying children.Jacob blesses the sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasses, andprefigures the Cross ofthe Lord.Jacob seated up in bed. Manasses before him to the right;Ephraim to the left . Jacob, having his hands upon their heads,THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 273makes the form of the cross by placing his right hand on Ephraim,and his left on Manasses. * Joseph, astonished, behind his sons.Jacob blesses his twelve Sons.Jacob, seated up in bed, spreads out his hands in blessing; hischildren are all on their knees before him.Mosesfound by Pharaoh's daughter in an ark ofbulrushes.Mountains and river. In the middle, on the river bank, a littleark, the king's daughter seated on a throne. On her right and lefttwo younger girls hold garments; one young maiden opens the arkbefore her and draws forth the infant.Moses feeding his flocks, beholds the burning bush.Moses untying his sandals. Sheep stand round. Before him aburning bush, in the middle and on the top of which is the Virginholding her Child; close to her an angel looks towards Moses. Atanother side of the bush, Moses appears again, one hand outstretchedand holding a rod in the other. See vol. i. p. 172.Moses announcing their redemption to the Hebrews.Moses standing upright. Aaron at his side. In front a crowd ofJews do him homage.Moses warns Pharaoh to let the Hebrews depart.A palace. Pharaoh seated on his throne; Moses and Aaronstand before him; in front, a great serpent who swallows up theother little serpents. The people stand near; they wear high headdresses and great furred hats, and they hold papers. The Hebrewsstand outside the palace, some mix the mortar and some the straw,while others mould the bricks and others bake them. Others arebeing flogged by the Egyptians.The Ten Plagues ofEgypt.1. Aaron, with his rod, changes the rivers and waters into blood.Rivers and fountains turned to blood. Moses stands upright,Aaron before him, stretches his rod towards the river. The

• See Lady Eastlake, Hist. of our Lord in Art, vol. i . , p. 169.

et Cahier, Vitraux de St. Etienne de Bourges, Atlas, pls. i. , iv.randus, Rationale Divin. Offic. , lib. v. cap. ii .Martin G. DuVOL. II. T274 APPENDIX II.Egyptians, in consternation and bewildered, cannot slake their thirst.2. Aaron and Moses, having stretched out their rod towards theriver, make frogs appear.3. Aaron and Moses, having struck the earth with their wands,gnats appear.4. The Egyptians are devoured by a swarm of rats.5. Murrain of the beasts of Egypt.6. Moses and Aaron, having stetched forth their rod in thepresence of Pharoah, bring boils upon the Egyptians.7. Moses, having stretched forth his hand to heaven, hail andfire destroy the plants and animals of Egypt.8. Moses, having stretched his rod towards heaven, draws downlocusts.9. Moses, raising his hands towards heaven, draws down a fog ofextraordinary thickness.10. An angel passes over; he strikes the firstborn of Egypt dead,from man to animals.Moses eating the Passover with the Hebrews.Houses. A table, upon which a roast lamb and large loavesaround it. Moses, Aaron, with other Hebrews, eat, standing andcarrying a knapsack and a staff. *Moses, having led the Hebrews across the Red Sea, submerges theEgyptians.The sea. Women dance upon the shore. A crowd of Hebrews,men and women, having children in their arms and on theirshoulders. Moses strikes the sea with his rod. Soldiers are seenin the midst of the sea, some on horseback, some in chariots,· covered by the water to the middle of the body or to the head. †Moses with his rod sweetens the bitter waters of Mara.Mountains. A space filled with water. Moses smites the waterwith his rod. Near him Hur and Aaron, with a crowd of Hebrewsbehind them and children, who drink the water.

• On many ancient sarcophagi, especially those in the museum at Arles,

the Hebrews who depart from Egypt are represented as carrying children or clothes on their shoulders, exactly as here indicated.In certain Greek manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, the Red Sea is personified by a vigorous man, who, seizing Pharaoh, drags him, his chariot and all his army down into the abyss.THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 275Moses and the people arrive at Elim, at the twelve fountains andthe seventy palm-trees.Mountains; twelve wells spring forth, shaded by three-score andten palm-trees. Moses and the Hebrews stand in the foreground .Moses on the mountain; he holds his hands outstretched andtriumphs over Amalek.Moses upon a mountain; he is seated on a rock. At eachside Hur and Aaron support his hands in the air. At the foot ofthe mountain, Joshua, son of Nun, and the Hebrews pursue theirenemies; they cut them to pieces.Moses receiving the Law.A high mountain. On the summit Moses, on his knees, holdsthe tables of the law. Above, many clouds, fire and lightnings.Angels blowing the trumpet. Lower down upon the mountain,Moses is seen breaking the tables of the law. At the foot ofthe mountain, the Hebrews feast and dance. In their midst alofty column supports the golden calf. Aaron stands apart in sorrow.Moses and Aaron celebrating in the Tabernacle of Witness.Four golden columns support a tent shining with gold angelswith six wings outspread. Below is the Ark ofthe Covenant, onwhich rests a golden vase, a seven-branched candlestick and fiveloaves. Above the ark, and just in the middle, the Holy Virgin isseen with her Child; on one side of the ark we see Moses with hisrod and the tables of the law; on the other Aaron in his sacerdotaldress and with a tiara on his head. Aaron holds his golden censerin the one hand and his blossoming rod in the other. Below thearch, Nadab and Abihu, sons of Aaron, with their sacerdotal vestments and censers, are lying dead upon the ground. Outside thetabernacle a crowd of people, an altar covered with victims, sheepand birds, consumed by fire.Moses, having struck the rock angrily, makes the water gushforth.Moses, standing up, strikes the stone with his rod . The watergushes forth; the children draw it in vases. A crowd of HebrewsT2276 APPENDIX II.men and women, near Moses. At the top of the rock we read these words: " The waters of strife. ” *Balaam goes to curse the Hebrews; he is prevented by an angel.Two vines. Between the hedges of the vine Balaam mounted ona mule, which he strikes with a staff. The mule kneels and turnshis head towards Balaam. The Archangel Michael stands forwardwith an unsheathed sword. The king's officers and knights appearbetween the two mountains.Balaam, called by Balak to curse the Hebrews, blesses them.Moses, with the Hebrews, fights the Moabites. Upon themountain are seven altars, on each of which is a bull and a ram.King Balak surrounded by his officers. Before him Balaam looksdown onthe Hebrews; he blesses them, saying on his scroll: " A starshall come out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, andshall smite the chiefs of Moab. "Death of Moses.Moses lies outstretched in death upon a mountain. The demonstoops towards his feet, an archangel stands at his head, stretcheshis hands out toward the demon, and threatens him with his sword.Twelve priests bear the ark into the middle of the Jordan, whileJoshua, son of Nun, makes the Hebrews cross the Jordan withdryfeet.Twelve priests carry the Ark of the Covenant upon theirshoulders; they stop in the middle of the Jordan, which is dried up behind them. The chariot, drawn by two oxen, is guided by adriver. A multitude with Joshua, son of Nun, crossing theJordan.Joshua, son of Nun, sees the leader of the heavenly hosts.The Archangel Michael, clothed in warrior's garb, † holds a nakedsword. Joshua, son of Nun, with grey hair; he is on his kneesbefore Michael, and unties the strings of his shoes, while gazing atMichael.

• The water issuing from the rock which Moses struck is an image of Christ. This subject appears on the painted windows of Bourges, Tours and Du Mans, where the Passion of Christ is represented as prefigured in the Old Testament.

The military costume worn by the archangel Michael and the warrior saints is always that of the Roman emperors.THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 277The Angel ofthe Lord appears to Gideon while he gathers in theharvest, and encourages him to strive against the Midianites.Fields. Men gathering in the wheat harvest. An altar blazing.The Archangel Michael holds a rod in his hand, with which hetouches the altar. Gideon, on his knees, stretches out his handtowards him; a scythe lies on the ground beside him.Gideon wrings out the fleece, water streams from it and fills a vase.A mountain. A threshing-floor. Gideon in the midst at prayer.Before him a lamb's skin with wool; rain falls from the sky uponthe fleece. A second time Gideon, outside the threshing-floor,wrings out the fleece over a basin. *An angel announces the birth of Samson to Manoah and his wife.Manoah, an aged, bald-headed man; near him his wife. Theykneel, their hands and eyes raised to Heaven. Before them an altarwith a kid burning. An archangel surrounded by light appears atthe same moment in the sky.Samson kills a lion.Samson, standing up, tramples a lion at his feet. He turns hishead backwards and tears it open.Samson, having fastened firebrands to the tails of three hundredfoxes, sets fire to his enemies' corn.Corn in great plenty, vines and olives; fields burnt. In themidst, foxes with torches tied to the tail. Samson, holding a fox,fastens a torch to his tail.Samson, with the jaw-bone of an ass, exterminates ten thousand enemies.Samson, with the jaw-bone of an ass, strikes the enemies that arebefore him. Behind him a great number of the slain.Samson, having carried away the gates of the city of Gaza, bringsthem up on a mountain.A city, open and without gates. Samson, bearing the gates upon his shoulders, scales the mountain.

• This event figures the virginity of Mary. In the narthex of the great church of the monastery of Chilandari, on Mt. Athos, this event is

represented, and on the fleece may be seen a little image of the Virgin,white as the fleece itself.278 APPENDIX II.Samson blinded by his enemies.Samson bound in chains; before him, his enemies, who put outhis eyes. The woman Delilah stands behind, watching him. *Samson, having seized two pillars of a house, causes its downfalland the death of his enemies.Houses ruined, men dead. In the midst of them, Samsonhimself is dead, still holding the two pillars between his arms.Samuel assisting at the sacrifice in the temple of the Lord.A temple and an altar. In the front the prophet Samuel, as alittle child, clothed in alb and holding a censer; before him theprophet Elias, who blesses him. His mother Hannah and fatherElkanah watch him.God relates to Samuel the death ofthe priest Eli and his sons.The temple. The aged Eli, high-priest, in a deep sleep. Theprophet Samuel, a little child, stands near, stretching one hand outand speaking to him. Farther on, Samuel, seated on a bed andlooking up; an angel blesses him out of heaven.Death of Eli and of his sons.A city. The high-priest, Eli, an old man, is stretched upon hiscouch with his head broken; a youth stands before him astonished.Outside, the Hebrews pursued by foreigners. The ark is also borneaway by enemies. Near at hand, Hophni and Phineas, the sonsof Eli, clothed in their sacerdotal robes, lie dead upon the ground.The enemy tormented in various ways by reason of the Ark oftheCovenant; they send it back to the Hebrews.Two oxen draw a chariot upon which the ark rests. Behind theark the enemy is seen watching it from a distance; in front, fieldsand reapers. Priests receive the ark.

• This subject was a common one in the time of the Renaissance, and is represented frequently on capitals, pilasters, stalls, glass and tapestry.

Adam listening to Eve, Samson sleeping at the knee of Delilah, Aristotle,as a beast of burthen, carrying the mistress of Alexander, Vergil (amagician) in a panier, Hercules at the feet of Omphale, Pyramus and Thisbe dying by their own hand, are all famous historic, legendary, and mythologic examples of the triumph of love.THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 279The prophet David consecrated king by Samuel.The child David. The aged Samuel pours oil from a horn onhis forehead. Behind David his father Jesse is seen, an aged man,with his seven brethren standing in wonder.David, playing the harp before Saul, drives the demonfromthe king.King Saul, an aged man, seated on a throne, his two hands outstretched towards David; soldiers stand near him. The youthDavid holds a harp, on which he plays before Saul.David slays Goliath.David, beardless, having a sling hung from his belt and a pouchon his right shoulder. He holds a head in his left hand and a swordin the right. Before him, the headless body of his enemy Goliathlies on the ground in armour. Further on, the Hebrews pursuingtheir enemies; at a still greater distance, choirs of maidens with harpsand dulcimers.David and the people bear the Ark into Jerusalem.Two oxen drawa chariot, on which the Ark, formed like a goldenshrine, is placed; it is surmounted by golden cherubim. Before it,David, in white vestments, plays the harp; he is accompanied bypriests, some with dulcimers, others with cithara, others withtrumpets. Near the arch, Uzzah lies dead; in the background thepeople follow in a crowd.David repents of his sin after the rebuke of the prophet Nathan.A palace. A golden throne before which David kneels. Theprophet Nathan stands up before him, and says to him upona scroll: " May the Lord pardon thy sin. " An angel standsnear him.David having numbered the people, the Lord, displeased, sends hisangel, who destroys 70,000, and does not rest till they are exterminated. -1 Chron. xxi. 1–19.A vast square. An angel in the midst of it stretches out hissword. In the fields around a great number of dead men are seen.At one end of this square stands an altar upon which are the remainsof charcoal, corn, and two burnt oxen. David kneels before the280 APPENDIX II.altar, his face turned towards the angel. Two soldiers are on theother side. The prophet Gad, between the angel and David, turnstoward David and shows him the angel. The city of Jerusalem isseen a little further on.Solomon consecrated kingDavid seated on a throne; before him, the child Solomon isconsecrated by a priest who pours oil from a horn. * Further onSolomon is seen mounted on a horse with a golden bridle. Behindhim, priests and people playing on divers instruments.prophet Nathan stands before Solomon.Solomon building a temple to GodTheA great temple with cupolas. Builders at work; some carrylime, others cut wood and stones. Near at hand Solomon with hissoldiers and officers; he holds a closed book.Solomon having built temples for idols, his wives come to worshipthem.A temple with idols and altars. Women prostrate themselves,Solomon in the midst of them.The prophet Elijah fed in a cave by a raven.A cave. The prophet Elias seated within, his elbow on hisknees, his chin resting on his hand. Above the cave, a ravenwatches the prophet and brings him bread in his beak.A house.Elijah blessing the widow's meal and oil.A woman holds two vases; the prophet Elijah standsbefore her and blesses them.Elijah raises the widow's son.A high house. On the top a bed in which a child is laid. Theprophet Elijah holds the child by its hand and breathes into itsmouth; the mother stands behind him.

• The consecration of Saul, David or Solomon is thus represented in our Latin monuments also. In the cathedral of Rheims, the above subject occurs among the remarkable sculptures on the outer cordon of the archivolt enclosing the western rose window.

THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 281King Ahab goes before Elijah.Mountains. King Ahab, an old man, mounted on a horse ingolden harness; soldiers behind him. In front the prophet Elijahseems to speak to him.Elijah, by his prayers, causes fire to descend from heaven andconsume the sacrifice.The prophet Elijah stands upright, his hands upraised to heaven;he says on a scroll: " O Lord God, answer me to-day in fire."Before him is an altar upon which an ox is laid. Fire falls fromheaven and consumes the sacrifice. A crowd of men lie prostrateon the ground.Elijah puts the priests to shame and slays them.A river. On its bank men are seen, bound and led by soldiers;the prophet, armed with a sword, cuts off their heads. *Elijah asleep under a tree. An angel awakens him and commandshim to eat.A great tree. Under it, Elijah sleeping; near his head a cake and a cruse. An angel comes to touch him by the hand.Elijah consecrates Elisha the prophet.A field. Men at work with twelve pairs of oxen. Elisha on hisknees holding the mantle of Elijah. Elijah, standing, blesses hisdisciple. Further on Elijah is seen again, and several altars arebefore him. Upon these altars, fire consumes the oxen and the broken ploughs.Elijah draws down fire to destroy two captains.A high mountain; the prophet Elijah, on the top, looks downaround him. At the foot of the mountain are a multitude of dead

• In the art of the Latin Church, Elias is never represented as himself

beheading the Jewish priests, as here directed. At Mount Athos, in theconvent of St. Laura, Christ, in like manner, is represented in an ancientmosaic as holding an open book with His left hand, and in His right a nakedsword, point upwards. In France the right hand is raised in blessing, not in menace. In Italy, the Christ is sometimes armed as in Greece. AnItalian MS. in the Bibl. Nationale, ' Psalterium cum Figuris,' shows Christholding a bow and arrows in the left hand, and a naked sword in theright.282 APPENDIX II.soldiers; the fire from Heaven descends upon them. Further on,other soldiers, prostrated on their knees, implore the prophet'sprotection.Elijah, walking on his mantle, crosses the Jordan.The prophet Elijah strikes the Jordan with his mantle. Elishanear him. Fifty sons of the prophets watch them from a distance.The prophet Elijah taken up in a chariot offire.Afiery chariot; Elijah, in the centre of the chariot, taken up intoheaven. * Elisha, below, receives the mantle that Elijah lets falltowards him; with the other hand he holds a scroll upon whichmay be read: " Oh, father, you are the arm that defends Israel!You are his champion! " †The prophet Elisha takes the mantle of Elijah; he strikes thewater and crosses with dry feet.Elisha holds in one hand the folded mantle of Elijah; he strikesthe Jordan. With the other hand he holds a scroll, on which weread: " Where is the Lord God of Elijah? "Elisha purifies with salt the poisoned waters.Elisha throws salt into the middle of the river, and holds a scrollon which may be read, “ This is the word of the Lord: I purify thesewaters." Near him a crowd of men; some members of the crowddrink of the waters.Elisha curses the children who have insulted him; the bears comeout and devour them.A forest of great trees. Two bears devour a number of children ,some escape up the trees. The prophet Elisha, below, looks up atthem angrily.Elisha blesses the widow's oil.A great number of jars. A woman holds a little pot of oil andpours it into the jars; Elisha, standing, blesses the oil. Two youthscarry other jars.

• Elijah, borne to heaven on a fiery chariot, is a figure of Christ's Ascension with a red banner in His hand. It occurs frequently on the

Christian sarcophagi in the museums of Arles, Marseilles and Paris."My father, my father, the chariot of Israel, and the horsem*n thereof! " (2 Kings ii . 12.)"I have healed these waters. (2 Kings ii. 21.)THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 283Elisha raises the Shunammite's child.A high house; a bed on the top. On the bed, the prophetElisha embracing the little child, his mouth upon his mouth, hiseyes upon his eyes, his hands upon his hands; outside, a woman ingreat affliction.Elisha commands Naaman to go and wash. He washes in theJordan and is healed.Naaman, naked, in the midst of the Jordan. On the shore, thesoldiers with horses and chariots. His clothes are on the shore.Gehazi is covered with leprosy, Elisha having cursed him.Elisha standing with a wrathful look, says on his scroll: " Theleprosy of Naaman shall cleave unto thee and to thy race." Gehazistands before the prophet in consternation.Sennacherib besieges Jerusalem; the Angel ofthe Lord descendsand slays one hundred four-score and five thousand men.A city on a mountain. Below the city walls, a multitude ofsoldiers, some of whom are dead, others being dragged off by theirhorses; others take flight, looking backwards in terror. Above, anarchangel on the clouds surrounded by a great light; he holds afiery sword in his hand.Christ in the midstChrist blesses withwhich may be read:Vision ofthe Prophet Isaiah. *A cave. Within it clouds and a great light;seated as a king upon a lofty throne of fire.the right hand; He holds a scroll in the left, on“ Whom shall I send, or who will go forth to these people? "Around Him a circle of six-winged seraphim crying and saying,"Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Sabaoth! All the earth is full ofHis glory." On the right the prophet Isaiah, filled with a greatfear, says upon a scroll, " Woe is me, for I am a man of uncleanlips! I have seen with mine eyes the King and Lord of Sabaoth! "A seraph before him holds a live coal with tongs; he places thecoal on the prophet's lips . † He holds in his left hand a scroll withthese words: "This hath touched thy lips, and hath purged thy

• Isaiah, vi. 1. See vol. i. p. 178.

This subject is sculptured on the west porch of Amiens Cathedral, at the base of a colossal statue of Isaiah. Attributes of Seraph, see p. 102 supra.284 APPENDIX II.sins." On the left hand, the prophet Isaiah is again seen in front ofChrist; he stands in awe before Him, saying on his scroll: " Heream I; send me."Martyrdom ofIsaiah.The prophet Isaiah tied to a tree. Two soldiers saw him asunder with a wooden saw. Before him, King Manasses on a throne; nearhim a crowd of Jews, idols and altars.The prophet Jeremiah.A cistern. The Hebrews seizes the prophet Jeremiah by thefeet, and throw him head-foremost into the cistern.The Prophet Jeremiah drawn forth from the cistern by Abimelech.A cistern. The prophet Jeremiah being gradually raised; at the top of the well, men draw him out with ropes. Abimelechtakes Jeremiah by the hand.Jerusalem taken the second time.A city burned and in ruins; outside, a crowd of soldiers seize theJews and King Zedekias. Near the town, Jeremiah and Baruchabove, in the midst of the desolation.Daniel and the three children, only living on pulse, appear fairerandfatter in flesh than they that eat ofthe king's meat. *Men eating meat and drinking wine. In the distance Danieland the three children eat cakes of the pulse and grain. Fartherback still is a palace, and King Nebuchadnezzar seated on a highthrone. Near him, many satellites; before him, the three children,the prophet Daniel and the others. An officer points them out toNebuchadnezzar.Daniel defends Susannah.tThe prophet Daniel, a youth, stands upright. Susannah beforehim, her hands tied behind her back. Two elders, in ample robesand with their heads covered, show Susannah to Daniel; near herstands Joachim her husband. In the distance the two elders areagain seen. The people stone them.Daniel i. 15. † Susannah vv. 46, 62.THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 285Daniel interprets the first dream of Nebuchadnezzar. *A palace; the king asleep upon a golden couch. Outside of thepalace, a mountain; at its foot an idol with a golden head, breastand arms of silver, body and thighs of copper, legs of iron, feet halfiron, half clay. A stone falls from the top of the mountain on thehead of the idol . Further on, the king seated upon his throne;Daniel before him points out to him the idol.The three children refuse to worship an idol; they are thrown intothefurnace, where an angel comes to refresh them.A furnace. Within, the three children, clothed, with hands andface raised to heaven; the archangel Michael in their midst. Outside the furnace the soldiers are devoured by the flames. Close bythere stands a statue of the king.Daniel interpreting his dream.A great and lofty tree. Many birds among its branches; animalsfeeding at its root. An angel strikes the tree with his hatchet.The king asleep in his palace, on a bed. Further on, the kingseated on a throne; Daniel, near the king, shows him the vision.Daniel interpreting the handwriting on the wall of the palace ofKing Balthazar.66 A palace. A hand, seen as far as the wrist, traces these wordsupon the wall: Mene, tekel, upharsin. " The king standing struckwith terror; before him is Daniel, who shows him this inscription;near them the Magi and wise men. A table prepared for a feast;women in the background.Vision ofthe prophet Daniel.tA house. The prophet Daniel asleep upon a bed. Outside of thehouse, the sea. The four winds blowfrom the four parts of the sea,whence issue four beasts. The first beast is a lion with eagle'swings; Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, seated above, holding asceptre in his hand. The second is a bear armed with three rows ofteeth; above him, Darius, king of Persia. The third, a leopardwith four wings and four heads; above him, Alexander, the kingof Macedon, armed with a javelin. The fourth like a black lion,

• Daniel iv. 20. † Daniel vii.

286 APPENDIX II.with teeth of iron and ten horns upon his head. Three horns arebroken; but in the midst of the others there arose a little horn witheyes and a mouth as a man. Above, Augustus, king of the Romans,bearing his sceptre. What remains of the vision is given below atthe Second Coming (i.e. the Last Judgment).Daniel, having exposed the deceitfulness ofthe priests, burns thetemple and breaks the statue of Baal.Atemple with a great idol, before which is a table covered withbread and viands. Outside the temple, the king with his satellites.Near the door, Daniel holds a sieve and scatters the ashes before theidol. Further on, Daniel is seen burning the temple and breakingthe idol. Soldiers putting priests, with their wives and children, to death.A cave.Daniel destroys the dragon.Within, an enormous dragon with gaping mouth;Daniel stands in front and throws black bread down its throat.Behind Daniel, the king and a crowd of people.Daniel in the den of lions; he is fed by Habakkuk, sent by theangel of the Lordfrom Jerusalem.Daniel in the midst of a dark pit, his hands and eyes raised toHeaven; he is surrounded by seven lions. Above him, the archangel Michael, holding the prophet Habakkuk by the hair. Thisprophet carries a basket filled with bread and viands, which hepresents to Daniel. *The prophet Jonah, flying before the face ofthe Lord, is thrown into the sea.Afurious sea; enormous waves. In the midst, a ship and sailorsthrowing Jonah head-foremost into the sea. A monstrous fishreceives the prophet in his jaws.Jonah delivered up by the fish on the bank near Nineveh.Atown; the sea below. A sea-monster casts Jonah on the bankJonah holds a scroll on which is written: " I cried out of my affliction to the Lord."

• Apocrypha: Bel and the Dragon, vv. 31–42.

THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 287Jonah preaching to the Ninevites.A city; a multitude. Jonah holds a scroll with these words:"Yet three days and Nineveh will be destroyed." Before him aremen, women, and children; some crying, others praying. The king,prostrate on the ground, covered with ashes and clothed in sackcloth, tears his hair; his regal robes and crown are cast upon theearth. Behind him rises a royal throne.Jonah afflicted by the sight of a withered gourd.A stem of gourd withered to the top of its branches. Below,Jonah in distress , one hand extended towards heaven, and holdingwith the other a scroll containing these words: " I shall mourn forthis gourd till death." On high, a ray descends from heaventowards Jonah. Upon this ray we read: " Thou pitiest this gourd;and I, should I not be touched with compassion for the great cityof Nineveh?" Below the head of Jonah the sun shoots rays which burn him.Job, bereft ofhis children and his goods, blesses God.A palace. Job, seated upon a throne, looks down and rends hisgarments; at his side, three men converse with him. Outside ofthe palace is a dilapidated house. The sons and daughters of Jobare destroyed. Farther on, fields, sheep, and oxen; robbers arriveand kill the shepherds. Farther still, horses and camels, whoseconductors have also been killed by robbers.Job sits among the ashes.A city. Outside, Job, covered with sores, stretched on a heap ofashes; at his side stand three kings who speak to him. His wifesays to him: "Curse God and die. " Job looks at her withan angered face, and says to her, " Why hast thou spoken as afoolish woman? We have received good at the hand of God, whyshould we not also receive evil? It is the Lord's will that hathhappened. ' Blessed be the name of the Lord.' "Job, because ofhis humility, receives twofold for what he had lost.A temple. An altar upon which an ox and a sheep are burning.Before the altar, Job is seen in prayer, clothed in regal robes. Athis side are his wife, seven sons and three daughters, with garments288 APPENDIX II.embroidered in gold. Further on, outside, on the mountains andin the fields, are a great number of oxen, sheep, horses and camels,with shepherds and servants.The righteous Judith slays Holofernes.Alofty city. Below it many tents are visible within which soldiersare asleep. In the midst is one tent decorated with ornamentsof gold. Within it is a golden bed, on which lies Holofernes,beheaded, his body enveloped in a gold embroidered quilt. Judith,clad in sumptuous apparel, stands before him bearing in one handa bloody sword, while with the other she places the head of Holofernes in a wallet which her servant holds for her. Thesame city is again seen further on. Men upon its walls holdbanners and carry the head of Holofernes on the end of a pike.Outside the town, the Jews pursue their enemies. *The Holy Patriarchs according to the genealogy.The first father, Adam: an old man, long hair, white beard.The righteous Abel, son of Adam: young, beardless.The righteous Seth, son of Adam: an old man, brown beard.The righteous Enos, son of Seth: an old man, beard bifurcated.The righteous Cainan, son of Enos: an old man, large beard.The righteous Mahalaleel, son of Cainan: an old man, bald.The righteous Jared, son of Mahalaleel: an old man, beard trifurcated.The righteous Enoch, son of Jared: an old man, beard pointed.The righteous Methuselah, son of Enoch: an old man, bald.The righteous Lamech, son of Methuselah: an old man, beard rounded.The righteous Noah, son of Lamech: an old man, beard pointed,long hair; he holds the Ark.The righteous Shem (Gen. xi. 10) , son of Noah: an old man, beardbifurcated.The righteous Japhet, son of Noah: an old man, crisp curly hair,beard round.The righteous Arphaxad, son of Japhet: an old man, beard large.Here end the scenes and pictures, properly so-called, from the Old Testament. Now we shall see single figures at full length. The picturesoccupy the highest portion of the walls; the separate figures are ranged below immediately above the casem*nt. This arrangement is followed in the Greek church paintings.THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 289The righteous Cainan, son of Arphaxad: an old man, great brownbeard.The righteous Salah, son of Cainan: an old man, five-pointedbeard.The righteous Eber (from whom the Jews draw their name Ebrews),son of Sala: an old man, beard pointed.The righteous Peleg, son of Eber: an old man, bald, beard pointed .The righteous Reu, son of Peleg: an old man, beard bifurcated.The righteous Serug, son of Reu: an old man, beard large.The righteous Nahor, son of Serug: an old man, beard trifurcated.The righteous Terah, son of Nahor: an old man, beard pointed.The patriarch Abraham, son of Terah: an old man, long hair, bearddescending to his waist.The patriarch Isaac, son of Abraham: an old man, pointed beard,long hair.The patriarch Jacob, son of Isaac: an old man, long hair, a great beard bifurcated.The twelve sons ofJacob.The patriarch Ruben: old man, bald, beard pointed.The patriarch Simeon: old man, beard bifurcated.The patriarch Levi: old man, beard rounded.The patriarch Judah: old man, beard large.The patriarch Zabulon: old man, beard long.The patriarch Issachar: old man, beard jonciform.The patriarch Dan: old man, beard bristly.The patriarch Gad: old man, beard and hair curled.The patriarch Aser: old man, fine pointed beard.The patriarch Nephtali: old man, beard long and full.The patriarch Joseph: old man, beard long; he carries a mitre. *The patriarch Benjamin: old man, beard brown, curly hair.The righteous Zarah, son of Judah: an old man, beard small.The righteous Pharez, son of Judah: an old man, beard large.The righteous Hezron, son of Pharez: old man, bald, beardround.The righteous Aram, son of Hezron: old man, beard pointed.The righteous Aminadab, son of Aram: greyhaired.The righteous Naashon: old man, beard bifurcated.The righteous Salmon, son of Naashon: old man, beard large.The righteous Booz, son of Salmon: old man, beard round.

• The mitre, or tiara, a sign of sovereign power in Egypt.

VOL. II.U29C APPENDIX II.The righteous Obed, son of Booz and Ruth: old man, bald.The righteous Jesse, son of Obed: old man, beard pointed.The prophet King David, son of Jesse: old man, beardrounded.The prophet King Solomon, son of David: young, beardless.The king Roboam, son of Solomon: beard commencing.The king Abias, son of Roboam: young, beard rounded.King Asa, son of Abias: old man, pointed beard.King Josaphat, son of Asa: old man, rounded beard.King Joram, son of Josaphat: old man, pointed beard.King Ozias, son of Joram: grey hair, rounded beard.King Joatham, son of Ozias: young, beard bifurcated.King Ahaz, son of Joatham: old man, large beard.King Hezekias, son of Ahaz: old man, pointed beard.King Manasses, son of Hezekias: old man, large beard,bifurcated.King Ammon, son of Manasses: old man, grey hair.King Josias, son of Ammon: old man, beard fine pointed.King Jeconiah, son of Josias: young, rounded beard.The righteous Salathiel, son of Jeconiah: young, beard commencing.The righteous Zorobabel, son of Salathiel: grey hair.The righteous Abiud, son of Zorobabel: old man, bald.The righteous Eliakim, son of Abiud: old man, beard bifurcated.The righteous Azor, son of Eliakim: old man, large beard,coloured brown.The righteous Sadoch, son of Azor: grey hair, beard bifurcated.The righteous Achim, son of Sadoch: young, beard commencing.The righteous Eliud, son of Achim: old man, bald, beardround.The righteous Eleazar, son of Eliud: old man, large beard.The righteous Matthan, son of Eleazar: old man, beard trifurcated.The righteous Jacob, son of Matthan: old man, beard pointed.The righteous Joseph, son of Jacob: betrothed to Mary, ofwhom was born Jesus, who is called Christ. (Matt. i. 16.)THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 291Other ancestors outside the genealogy.The righteous Melchisedech: an old man, with large peard, adornedin sacerdotal vestments, a mitre on his head; he carries threeloaves on a disk.The righteous Job: an old man with rounded beard and crownupon his head; he holds a scroll containing these words: " Blessedbe the name of the Lord, from this time forth for evermore! "The prophet Moses: grey hair, very little beard; he wears asacerdotal dress, a mitre and a veil, and holds the two tables ofthe law.The prophet Aaron: an old man with a large beard; he is clothedin a sacerdotal garment, and wears the mitre (or tiara); he holdsa golden censer and a blossoming rod.The prophet Hur: an old man, his beard bifurcated; he wears asacerdotal vestment, and holds a scroll unopened.The righteous Joshua, son of Nun: an old man with a roundedbeard; he wears a crown and a military dress, and holds asceptre.The prophet Samuel: an old man with a great beard; he wears asacerdotal vestment and a mitre, he holds a horn of oil and acenser.The righteous Tobias: a large beard bifurcated; he says upon hisscroll: “ Many nations will come from afar in the name of theLord God, bearing presents in their hands."The righteous Tobias, his son: an old man with curly hair; hesays upon a scroll: " May the God of our fathers be blessed!May His sacred and glorious name be blessed throughout all ages! "The three children, Ananias, Azarias and Misaël: young, beardless.The righteous Joachim, father of Mary of whom was born Jesus,who is called Christ: grey hair, round beard.The righteous Simeon, who received the Lord in his arms: an oldman, great beard.Holy Women of the Old Testament.The first mother Eve: old, with white hair.The righteous Sarah, wife of Abraham: aged.The righteous Rebecca, wife of Isaac: aged.The righteous Leah, first wife of Jacob: the same.The righteous Rachel, second wife of Jacob: young.U 2292 APPENDIX II.The righteous Asenath, wife of Joseph: young.The righteous Miriam, sister of Moses: aged.The righteous Deborah, who judged Israel: aged; she wears acrown.The righteous Ruth: young.The prophetess Huldah: aged. ( 2 Kings xxii. 15.)The righteous widow of Sarepta to whom Elijah was sent: aged.The righteous Shunamite, who showed hospitality to Elisha: aged.The righteous Judith, who cut off the head of Holofernes: young.The righteous Esther, who saved the people of Israel: young.The righteous Hannah, mother of the prophet Samuel: aged.The righteous Susanna: young.The righteous Anna, mother of Mary: aged.The Holy Prophets, their characteristics and epigraphs.The prophet Moses: grey hair, very little beard; he says, “ Maythe heavens rejoice with Him, and may all the angels adore Him! "The prophet King David: an old man, rounded beard; he says,"O Lord, how great are Thy works; in wisdom hast Thou madethem all."The prophet King Solomon: young, beardless; he says, "Wisdom has built itself a dwelling."The prophet Elijah: an old man, white beard; he says, " May theLord, the Almighty God, the God of Israel, live! "The prophet Elisha: young, bald, shaggy beard; he says, “ TheLord liveth; He hath given life to thy soul, and He will not forsake thee."The prophet Isaiah: an old man, a great beard; he says, “ Listen,O ye heavens, give ear, O ye earth, for the Lord hath spoken;the sons ... 99The prophet Jeremiah: an old man with short spare beard: " Andit has happened that the word of the Lord hath said unto me,Before I formed the ... "9The prophet Baruch: an old man, rounded beard; he says, “ OhLord, look down upon Thy holy house, and incline Thine ear towards ... "99 The prophet Ezekiel: an old man, pointed beard; he says, " TheLord says: Behold I will Myself search out My sheep .The prophet Daniel: young, beardless , he says, " The God ofTHE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 293heaven will raise up a kingdom which will remain indestructible for centuries ... 99The prophet Hosea: an old man, round beard; he says, " I willhave mercy and not sacrifice, and the knowledge of God is betterthan burnt offerings, saith the Lord ... "The prophet Joel: a black beard, bifurcate; he says, " And theLord will shout from Mount Zion, and He will raise His voice inthe midst of Jerusalem."The prophet Amos: old man, round beard; he says, " Woe untothem that desire the day."The prophet Abdias: grey hair; he says, " In this day shall I losethe sages of Idumæa."ووThe prophet Jonah: a bald old man; he says, " Out of my troublehave I cried unto the Lord, and He has heard me."The prophet Micah: old man, pointed beard; he says, " In thisday, saith the Lord, I shall unite that which was broken ...The prophet Nahum: an old man, short beard; he says, " Whocan endure the face of His anger, and who can resist His indignation? "99 The prophet Habakkuk: young, beardless; he says, “ O Lord, Ihave heard Thy voice. Give life to Thy work and ...The prophet Zephaniah: an old man, white-haired; he says, " Theday of the Lord is near; it is near and rapid."The prophet Haggai: an old man, round beard; he says, “ Beholdwhat the Almighty Lord sayeth: Place your hearts ... "The prophet Zacharias: young, beardless; he says, "Such are thewords of the Lord: Behold, I shall save My people out of theeast ... 99The prophet Malachi: grey hair, round beard; he says, " Thus hath the Lord spoken: From the rising of the sun to the goingdown thereof ...99 The prophet Gideon: old man, bald, round beard; he says, " Ifthedew has only fallen on the fleece, and that the dryness ..The prophet Zechariah, father of the Baptist (the Harbinger): old man, large beard, sacerdotal dress; says, "Blessed be the LordGod of Israel, for He hath visited and redeemed His people. "The prophet Nathan: a bald old man, round beard.The prophet Achias: old man, long and large beard.The prophet Sameas: old man, round beard.The prophet Joad, whom a lion had torn; strong beard.294 APPENDIX II.The prophet Azarias, son of Adeo: old man, hair curly.The prophet Ananias: old man, beard bifurcate.Other prophecies on the Festivals of the Lord, on the Miracles,Passion, and Birth of Christ.The patriarch Jacob: "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah,nor the government from his descendants, until He who shouldbe sent (the Messenger) cometh, who is the desire of all nations."(Gen. xlix. 10.)David: “ He shall descend as rain upon a fleece, and as the dewwhich moistens the ground."Isaiah: " Unto us a Child is born, unto us a Son is given, and Heshall be called by His name, the Angel of the Mighty Will. ” *Habakkuk: " God will come from the south, and the Holy Onefrom a mountain covered with thick cloud. "Micah: " And thou, Bethlehem, land of Judah, are not least amongthe cities of Judah, for out of thee shall come forth a Governorthat shall rule My people." (Micah v. 2. )Malachi: " He will arise, for you who fearRighteousness, with healing in His wings."my name, a Son of(Mal. iv. 2.)Baruch: " He is our God; no other God can stand beside Him."Afterwards: " He hath appeared upon the earth, and He hath talked with men."Moses says upon the Circumcision: " And on the eighth day yeshall circumcise the child. " (Lev. xii. 3.)Moses says on the Presentation: " Every male coming forthfrom his mother's breast (that openeth the womb) shall besanctified to the Lord." (Luke ii. 23.) Another prophecy:"Consecrate unto me every first-born-every first male child."(Ex. xiii. 2.)On the flight into Egypt: " Behold, the Lord rideth upon a swiftcloud; He shall come into Egypt, and the idols of Egypt shall bemoved at His presence. " (Is. xix. 1.)Hosea: "I have called My Son out of Egypt." (Hosea xi. 1.)On the massacre of the Innocents, Jeremiah: " A voice was heardin Rama, lamentation and bitter weeping." (Jer. xxxi. 15.)On the baptism of Jesus Christ, David: " The waters saw, O God,

• Further on we shall speak of the Angel of the Mighty Will or Coun- sellor, a wonderful creation of Greek art almost unknown to us. (Isaiah

x. 6.)THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 295the waters saw, they were afraid; the depths also were troubled. "(Psalm lxxvii. 16.) ( See p. 302, note. )Isaiah: " Wash you, make you clean, put away the evil of yourdoings." (Is. i. 16.)Jeremiah: " Oh, Jerusalem, wash thine heart from wickedness, thatthou mayest be saved. " (Jer. iv. 14.)Ezekiel: " Behold , thus saith the Lord: I will sprinkle clean waterupon you, and you shall be clean. " (Ezek. xxxvi. 25.)Nahum: " Behold, thus saith the Lord, who ruleth the great waters. "(Nahum 1. 4.)Malachi: " Behold, I shall send My messenger, and he shall prepareMy way before Me. " ( Mal. iii. 1.)Zechariah: " And it shall be in that day that living waters shall goout from Jerusalem." (Zech . xiv. 8.)On the miracles of Christ, Isaiah says, “ Surely He hath borne ourgriefs and carried our sorrows." (Is. liii. 4.)On the parables, David saith, “ Behold, I will open My mouth in aparable. " (Ps. lxxxiii. 2.)On the Transfiguration, David: " Thabor and Hermon shall rejoicein Thy name." (Ps. lxxviii. 12.)On the resurrection of Lazarus, Hosea: " I will ransom them fromthe power of the grave, I will redeem them from death. "(Hosea xiii. 14.)On the Festival of (Palm) Branches, David: " Out of the mouthof babes and sucklings Thou hast perfected praise. " (Matt.xxi. 16.)Zechariah: " Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion, for behold thyKing cometh unto thee, meek, and sitting upon an ass, and a colt,the foal of an ass." (Matt. xxi. 5. )Jesus driving out the salesmen: " My house, saith the Lord, shallbe called the house of prayer for all people. " (Matt. xxi. 13;Is. lvi. 7.)Upon the mystic supper, Jeremiah: " Behold, the days comethat I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel."(Jer. xxxi. 31.)Upon the covenant of Judas, Zechariah: " So they weighed for Myprice thirty pieces of silver. " (Zech. xi. 12.)On the betrayal, David: " He who did eat of My bread hathpractised treason against Me." (Ps. xli. 9.)Upon the judgment of Annas and Caiaphas, David: " False296 APPENDIX II.witnesses did rise up; they questioned Me on things that theyknew not. (Ps. xxxv. 11.)On the repentance of Judas, Zechariah: " And they took the thirtypieces of silver, the price of the honourable." (Zech. xi. 12;Matt. xxvii. 9.)Upon the judgment of Pilate, David: " Why do the heathen rage,and the people imagine a vain thing? " (Ps. ii. 1.)Upon the flagellation , Isaiah: “ I gave My back to the smiters, andMy cheek to blows. " (Isa. 1. 6. )Upon the mockery, David: " I am become a mockery for all Myenemies." (Ps. xxii. )Upon the Bearing of the Cross, Jeremiah: "I was like a lamb thatis brought to the slaughter." (Jer. xi. 19.)Upon the elevation of the Cross, Isaiah: " He is brought as a lambto the slaughter; and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, soHe openeth not His mouth. " (Isa. liii. 7.)Upon the Crucifixion, Moses: " Look upon your life hung beforeyour eyes." (This refers to Numb. xxi. 8, 9, and John iii. 14.)David: "They have pierced My hands and My feet." (Ps. xxii. 16.)Isaiah: "He hath poured out His soul unto death; and He wasnumbered with the transgressors." (Isa. liii . 12. )Isaiah: " The righteous have beenIsaiah, lvii. 1.taken away from the evil."(Ps. xliv. 23.)(Cant. v. 2.)"He stooped down, he couched as a lion and as an old lion; whoshall rouse him up? " (Gen. xlix. 9.) (See vol. i. , p. 341.)David: " Awake! Why sleepest thou? "Solomon: " I sleep, but my heart waketh."Isaiah: "Your tomb shall be in peace."Isaiah: On the Descent into Hell: "Hell from beneath is moved forthee to meet thee at thy coming " (Isa. xiv. 9.)Hosea: "In the third day He will raise us up. " (Hos. vi. 2.)David: “ Let God arise; let His enemies be scattered.” (Ps. lxviii. 1.)Zephaniah: " Therefore wait ye upon Me, saith the Lord, until theday that I rise up. " (Zeph. iii . 8.)Upon the women bearing perfumes, Isaiah: " Women sent of God shall come here."Upon the Ascension, David: God has gone up with a shout, theLord with a sound of a trumpet." (Ps. xlvii. 5.)Zechariah: " And His feet shall stand in that day upon the Mountof Olives, which is before Jerusalem." (Zech. xiv. 4.)THE WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT LAW. 297Upon the Pentecost, Joel: " And it shall come to pass afterwardthat I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh, and your sons andyour daughters shall prophesy." (Joel ii. 28.)Zechariah: “ In that day, saith the Lord, I will pour upon thehouse of David and upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the spiritof grace and of supplication." (Zech. xii. 10.)Other prophecies at the Festival of the Mother of Christ.Upon the Nativity of the Mother of Christ, Ezekiel: " This gate shallbe shut, it shall not be opened, and no man shall enter in by it."(Ezek. xliv. 2.)Upon the Presentation, David: " The virgins, her companions thatfollow her, shall be brought to the King. "Upon the Annunciation, David: " Hearken, O daughter, and consider; incline thine ear and forget also thine own people." (Ps.xlv. 10.)Solomon: Many daughters have done virtuously, but thou excellestthem all. " (Prov. xxxi. 29.)Isaiah: " Behold: A virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shallcall His name Jesus. " (Isa. vii. 14.)Upon the death of the Virgin: " Arise, O Lord, into Thy rest; Thou,and the ark of thy strength." (Ps. cxxxii. 8.)How to represent the Philosophers of Greece who have spoken oftheIncarnation of Christ.APOLLONIUS. -An old man: large beard, bifurcate, wearing a veilon his head; he says upon a scroll: “ I, even I, announce one Godalone in a Trinity, reigning above all things. His incorruptibleWord will be conceived in the bosom of a young Virgin. Like afiery ark He will swiftly shoot through space. He will seize on allthe living universe and bear it as an offering to His Father."SOLON, the Athenian. —An old man: beard rounded. He says,"When He overruns this transitory world, He will set there a thronewithout blemish. The unwearied object of the Godhead is toannihilate incurable passions. He will be hated of all faithless men.He will be hung upon a mountain, and will endure all these thingswillingly and with sweetness."THUCYDIDES. -Grey hair: beard trifurcate. He says, " God is avisible light, praise be unto Him. All things proceed from Hisintelligence, resolve again in His sole unity! There is no other God,298 APPENDIX II.neither Angel, nor Wisdom, nor Spirit, nor Substance; but Heis theonly Lord, the Creator of all that exists, the perfect Word, fruitfulabove all. Letting Himself fall upon a fertile nature, He has causedfountains to spring from nothing."PLUTARCH. -An old man: bald, beard pointed.He says,"Nothing can be imagined above Him who surpasses all things: itis from Him and not another that the Word emanates. It is provedimmutably that Wisdom and the Word of God embrace the endsof the earth."PLATO. -An old man: tall, with a large beard . He says, " Theold is made new and the new is old. The Father is in the Son, andthe Son is in the Father. Unity is divided into three, and trinity isreunited into unity." (See vol. i . p. 2.)ARISTOTLE.-An old man: shaggy beard. He says, "The generation of God is inexhaustible, for the Word itself derives its essence from Him."PHILO the Alexandrian. -An old man: bald, large beard, bifurcate.He says, " Behold Him who walketh upon the heaven, that exceedsin brightness the imperishable flame. All tremble before Him, boththe heavens, the earth, the sea, the abyss ( Chaos) , hell and alldemons. He is the Father of fathers, and has no Father. He isthrice blessed.SOPHOCLES. -An old man: bald, beard with five points. He says,"There is but one eternal God-in His nature simple; He hath created heaven and earth.”THOULIS, King of Egypt.-Old man: large beard. He says,"The Father is the Son and the Son is the Father; without fleshand incarnate, God Almighty. "THE DIVINE BALAAM. -Old man: round beard, a veiled head.He says, "There shall come a Star out of," etc.THE WISE SIBYL:-" There will come from heaven an eternalKing, who will judge all flesh and all the universe. From avirgin, a spotless bride, the only Son of God should come.Eternal, unfathomable, the only Word of God. It makes theheaven shake and the human soul to tremble."How to represent the tree ofJesse.The righteous Jesse sleeps. Out of the lower part of his breastspring three branches; the two smaller ones surround him, thethird and larger one rises erect and entwines round the figures ofTHE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 299Hebrew kings from David to Christ. The first is David; he holdsa harp. Then comes Solomon, and after him, the other kingsfollowing in their order and holding sceptres. At the top of thestem, the birth of Christ. On each side, in the midst of the branches,are the prophets with their prophetic scrolls; they point out Christ,and gaze upon Him. Below the prophets, the sages of Greece andthe soothsayer Balaam, each holding their scrolls. They look upwardsand point towards the Nativity of Christ. ( See vol. i. p. 475.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE FESTIVALS OF THE LORD, AND THEOTHER WORKS AND MIRACLES OF CHRIST ACCORDING TOTHE HOLY GOSPEL.The Annunciation of the Mother of God.Houses. The Holy Virgin standing before a seat, her head alittle bent. In her left hand she holds a spindle with silk rolled onit; her right hand is stretched out open towards the Archangel. St.Michael is before her; he salutes her with the right hand, and holdsa bâton (long as a lance) in his left. The sky above the house.The Holy Spirit descends from it upon a ray which reaches to theVirgin's head.Joseph reproaches Mary.Houses. The Holy Virgin, pregnant; Elizabeth astonished. Infront stands Joseph, leaning with one hand upon a staff; he extendsthe other towards the Virgin, whom he looks at angrily.The Salutation of the Virgin Mother and Elizabeth.A house. Inside Mary and Elizabeth embrace. Further onJoseph and Zachariah converse. Behind them a little child with astick upon his shoulder, at the end of which a basket is hanging.On the other side is a stable. A mule is tied to it and feeds.The Call ofthe Magi.A palace. King Herod seated in a hall, upon his throne. Beforehim, the three Magi stretch out their hands to him; behind, Jews,Scribes, and Pharisees, converse.The Nativity of Christ.Agrotto. * Within, upon the right, the Virgin kneeling; she laysIn the East the scene of the Nativity is always laid in a grotto orcave, whereas, in the West, it is in a poor cabin or stable covered with thatch.300 APPENDIX II.Christ, an infant in swaddling clothes, in a cradle. To the leftJoseph upon his knees, his hands crossed upon his breast. Behindthe cradle, an ox and an ass are watching Christ. Behind Joseph,Christ and the holy Virgin, the shepherds, each holding his staff,watch with astonishment. Outside the cave sheep and shepherds;one of them playing on the flute, the others look upwards in fear.Above them an angel blessing them. On the other side, the Magi,on horseback and in regal robes, point to the star. Abovethe grottoa multitude of angels in the clouds carrying a roll with these words:"Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, goodwill towardsmen! " A great ray of light descends upon Christ's head.Adoration ofthe Magi.A house. The holy Virgin seated, holding the infant Christ, whoblesses. Before her, the Magi present their gifts in golden shrines.One of the kings, an old man with a great beard, and head uncovered, kneels, and gazes on the Christ; with one hand he proffersHim his gift, and, with the other holds his crown. The secondking has very little beard, the third none at all. * They look at oneanother and point to Christ. Joseph stands in wonder behind theholy Virgin. Outside the grotto, a youth holds the three horses bythe bridle. In the båckground, the three Magi are again seen returning to their country; an angel goes before to show the way.Candlemas. †A temple and cupola. Underneath the cupola, a table on which agolden censer is standing. St. Simeon Theotokos + takes the littleinfant Christ in his arms and blesses it. On the other side of thetable the holy Virgin stretches out her open arms to the Babe.Behind her Joseph carrying two doves in his robe. Near her theprophetess Anna says upon her scroll: "This Child is the Creatorof heaven and of earth."The Flight into Egypt.Mountains. The holy Virgin seated on an ass with the child,

• The aged king was named Gaspar; he of middle age is Melchior;

Balthazar is the young king; he is beardless, and generally represented like a negro, with thick lips, flat nose and curly hair.† The Purification Festival, Feb. 2, when lights were carried in proces- sion, in allusion to the words, " a Light to enlighten the Gentiles custom still practised in London in 1548.He who has received God.THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 301looks behind her at Joseph, who carries a staff and his cloak thrownover his shoulder. A young man leads the ass and carries a rush basket. * He looks behind him at the Virgin. Before them a cityand idols falling from its walls.Massacre ofthe Innocents.A city. Herod seated on a throne; two soldiers are near him.In the foreground, many other soldiers with a standard. Othertowns upon the mountains with women in them carrying infants;others fly hiding them behind them, and striving with their handsto save them from the soldiers . Other women are seen seated inlamentation by the dead bodies of their children. In other partssoldiers tear the children from their mothers' arms, others stab themwith their swords or hew them in pieces, or cut off their heads. Acrowd of children stretched bleeding upon the earth. Some in theirswaddling clothes, others with their dresses. Elizabeth carries theHarbinger, † a little infant, and flies, looking behind her; she ispursued by a soldier with drawn sword. A rock, mighty as a mountain, splits open to receive her.‡Christ, when twelve years old seated, among the doctors.A temple. Within Christ seated on a throne; with one hand Heholds a roll, and He stretches out the other. The Scribes andPharisees seated at each side look at Him in great astonishment.Behind the throne stand Joseph and the Virgin, pointing Christ outto him.Christ comes to the Jordan to be baptised.Mountains. Below, the river Jordan. Christ advances; theHarbinger shows Him to the people, and says upon his scroll: §“ Behold the Lamb of God, who taketh away the sins of the world. ”Christ is at a distance standing on the banks of the Jordan. TheHarbinger says to Jesus on his scroll! " It is I that should bebaptised ofThee, and comest Thou to me.' But Christ, blessing him,says: " Prophet, suffer it to be so now, for thus it becometh us tofulfil all righteousness . "The youth here introduced comes from a now forgotten legend. In Italy, and sometimes in France, he has been replaced by an angel who guides the divine exiles.Or Precursor: title of John the BaptistApocryphal Gospel.See note, vol. i. , page 336, of this work.302 APPENDIX II.Baptism of Christ.Christ standing naked in the midst of the Jordan. The Harbinger, on the river bank to the right of Christ, looks upward; hisright hand rests upon the head of Christ, he raises the left towardsheaven. Above, the sky is seen, whence issues the Holy Spirit,descending on a ray which rests upon the head of Christ. In themidst of the ray we read the words: " This is My beloved Son, inwhom I am well pleased. " On the left angels stand in reverencewith arms outspread. Clothes lie on the ground. Below the Harbinger, and across the Jordan, a naked man reclines, who looksbehind him at Christ, as if in terror. He holds a vase whencehe pours water. * Fish surround Christ.Christ tempted by the Devil.The desert and trees. Christ standing, and the devil showingHim some stones, says to Him: " If Thou art the Son of God,command that these stones be made bread." Christ answers upona scroll: " Man shall not live by bread alone. ” Near at hand thetemple is seen, and on the pinnacle stands Christ, the devil in frontof Him, saying: " If Thou be the Son of God, cast Thyself downfrom hence." And Christ answers him upon a scroll: " Thou shaltnot tempt the Lord thy God. " Near that, a very high mountain,Christ upon the summit, and the devil standing before Him, showing

• This naked man, who looks with fear at Christ, is only another Jordan,

a personification of the river, leaning on his urn. It is in accordance withthe prophecy of David, as given above, that Jordan is represented as in fear ( pp. 294, 295). In the West, the Jordan is sometimes personified at the time of the Baptism. Our thirteenth- century glass windows and minia- tures of the eleventh and twelfth centuries afford us many examples.And even more than this: the name Jordan has been divided into twosyllables (Jor -Danus), and the baptism is represented as taking place at the meeting of two waters, the Jor and the Danus, being shown as two small human figures, each holding an urn from which they pour water into one bed. See MS. , Bibl. Nat. Suppl. Lat. 641. ninth cent. Tworivers of Jordan are represented on a glass window in the sanctuary of Chartres. I have seen, perhaps twenty times in Greece, the baptism inthe Jordan thus represented. Jesus stands naked in the middle of the river, His feet placed on a squared stone which rises between twostreams; out of the four corners of this stone issue four serpents, who dartbody, neck and tongue, out towards Christ with great, though impotent,fury. A similar representation occurs in the cupola of the baptistry of St. Laura at Mount. Athos. Here the sea is also personified, but by awoman's form.THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 303Him all the kingdoms of the world, and saying: " All these things willI give, if You fall at my feet and worship me." Christ says to himupon a scroll, " Get thee behind Me, Satan; for it is written, Youshall worship the Lord your God." At the base of the mountainmay be seen cities and fortresses; kings seated at table, soldiers,with standards standing round. Further still, Christ and the angelsaround Him, some on their knees, others holding fans, and the devilin flight, looking backwards. (See vol. i. p. 277.)The Harbinger testifies for Christ before His disciples.The Harbinger points out the Christ to John and Andrew. Nearat hand are Andrew leading Peter, and Philip leading Nathaniel up to Christ.Christ calls His disciples, who give upfishing forfish.The sea. Two ships in the midst of it; in the one Christ , Peterkneeling before Him. Andrew draws the net. In another ship,John and James, with their father Zebedee, draw the same net,There are so many fish to be seen in it that the net breaks.Christ changes water to wine at the marriage at CanaA table; Scribes and Pharisees seated near. The chief personagein the company holds a cup filled with wine, and looks astonished.The bridegroom with grey hair, and round beard, is in the midstof the group; the bride stands near him. They wear crowns offlowers on their heads. Behind them a youth carrying a large vastand pouring wine into a cup. Under the table six jars, which twoyouths fill from leathern bags. Christ, seated at the head of thetable, blesses them. The Holy Virgin and Joseph are near Him,and the Apostles behind.Christ seated.Christ questioned by Nicodemus.Behind Him the apostles. Nicodemus seatedbefore Him, questioning Him.Christ talketh with a woman of Samaria.Christ seated on a stone, and the apostles behind Him astonished.A well in the foreground, near which is a woman holding a pitcherin her left hand, and stretching out her right towards Christ. Christblesses her. There is an urn at this woman's side.304 APPENDIX II.Christ heals the nobleman's son.A city. Christ blessing. Behind Him the apostles. In front aman with fur bonnet and magnificent dress speaks to Him. Behindthis man, three soldiers watch him, and point to a great palace inthe background, in the midst of which is a bed; upon this bed is ayouth holding his belt.Christ teaching in the Synagogue.The temple. Christ, standing up in the midst, holds a book intwo hands, and reads these words: " The spirit of the Lord is uponMe, therefore I preach the gospel to the poor." Near Him a youthstretches out his hand eagerly to receive the book. The Scribesand Pharisees seated round Him point Him out to one another. Anumber of people regard him with astonishment.Christhealing the possessed man.The temple. Within it Christ and His apostles. Before Him isa young man laid upon the ground and foaming at mouth. Scribes,Pharisees, and people stand round in admiration.Christ cleanses the leper.A mountain. Christ at the foot of it, with His apostles; beforeHim, a naked man, all covered with sores, kneels at His feet. Christlays His hand upon the head of the leprous man, from whose mouth fall scales like the scales of a fish.Christ heals the centurion's servant.Christ with His apostles. A man in military costume kneelsbefore Him. In the distance, a palace and a youth rising from his bed. Around him stand men and women. A man, near thecenturion, points to the palace.Christ raises the widow's son.*A city. Outside the gates, a crowd of men. In the midst, fourof them place a bed upon the ground, on which a young man,covered with a winding sheet, is laid. He raises himself a little andlooks at Christ. Christ touches the bier with one hand, and withthe other blesses the young man. Behind Christ are the Apostles.At His feet, a woman weeps and tears her hair.

• Luke vii. 11-16.

THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 305Christ healeth Simon's wife's mother. *A house. The mother-in-law of Peter, an old woman, laid upona bed. Christ raises her by the hand. The apostles behind.Christ heals different sicknesses.Christ standing, blessing. The apostles behind Him. A crowdof sick people before Him: some laid on their beds, some uponcrutches, some carried on other men's shoulders; the blind, thelame, the paralysed.Christ stilling the winds and the sea.†Afurious sea, and a little vessel sailing in the midst. Christ asleep,at the prow. Peter and John, filled with fear, stretch out theirhands to Him. Andrew holds the helm; Philip and Thomas makefast the sails. Christ is seen a second time in the midst of the shipraising His hands before the winds and rebuking them. Cloudsabove; winds blowing through the sails. ‡The demoniacs in the country ofthe Gadarenes; Christ heals themand drives the demons into the swine.§A city. Mountains and a great number of tombs around. Twodemoniacs come forth; they lean with one hand upon the ground,and stretch out the other towards Christ. Christ, surrounded byHis disciples, blesses them. A multitude of demons issue from themouths of the demoniacs, and are driven towards a herd of swinegrazing close by. Some ride astride on the backs of the swine,others run down their throats. The swine throw themselves intothe sea, and the herdsmen fly towards the city, looking backwards.Christ heals the man sick ofthe palsy in a house. ||A house. Christ with his disciples. Pharisees seated. Above

• Matt. viii. 14; Mark i. 29; Luke iv.

Matt. viii. 23; Mark iv. 35; Luke viii . 22.The Greeks, powerful in imagination, and ready to embrace the images of heathen mythology, personify the winds. In the great convent of Vatopedi, on Mt. Athos, the four cardinal winds are figured on the walls of the porch of the principal church. They are represented as heads without bodies, with inflated cheeks, and two great wings, with mouths wide open they blow upon the sea. Near their bristled hair may be read"Zephyrus"-"Boreas "-" Notus." Notus alone is young and beardless;the others are old and bearded. See Annales Arch. , vol. i., pp. 38, 40.§ Matt. viii. 28; Mark v. 1; Luke viii. 26.Matt. ix. 1-8; Mark ii . 1-12; Luke v. 17-26.VOL. II.306 APPENDIX II.Christ are two men upon the roof; they hold a bed suspended bymeans of cords; before Christ a man, half sitting up, is on the bed.This man is seen again in the midst of the crowd; he is walking,and carries his bed on his shoulders.Christ calling Matthewfrom the receipt ofcustom .Christ standing with His apostles; before Him, Matthew on hisknees. Behind Him, a house with boxes, account-books andwriting materials. Above them a pair of scales.Christ eating with publicans.Houses and table. Christ seated. Men, some with fur hats,others with turbans, others with bare heads. Matthew and twofemale attendants serve the food. A youth carries a vase andserves the wine. The disciples are outside the house. The Phariseestalk to them and point at Christ.Christ cures the woman with an issue of blood. *Christ, standing, turns His face backwards towards His disciples.A woman on her knees holds the hem of Christ's garment andraises her eyes towards Him. He blesses her. A crowd of people stand around.Christ raises the daughter of Jairus. †A house. A young girl seated on a gilded bed. Christ standingbefore her, takes her by the left hand, while He blesses her with theright. Behind Christ, Peter, James, and John. On one side of thebed is a man with a fur robe, and a veiled head; on the other side,a woman weeping. A great crowd is seen outside the house.Christ cures two blind men.‡Christ. The apostles behind Him. Two blind men in frontwith their sticks. Christ touches their eyes with His hands.Christ cures the man possessed by a deaf and dumb spirit. ||Christ with the apostles. Before Him a man, out of whosemouth a demon issues. Christ touches the ear of the deaf man

• Matt. ix. 20-22; Mark v. 25-34; Luke viii. 43-48.

† Matt. ix. 18; Mark v. , 22; Luke viii. 41. Matt. xx. 30.Matt. ix. 32; Luke ii . 14; " a dumb spirit; " deafness not mentioned.St. Mark vii. 32: " a deaf and dumb spirit: " devil not mentioned.THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 307with His right hand. Scribes and Pharisees, and a crowd aroundHim.Christ questioned by the disciples of the Harbinger. *Christ with ten disciples; He blesses them, and says upon a scrollwhich He holds: " Tell to John that which you have heard andseen." Before Him stand the blind, the lepers, and the demoniacs,demons issuing from their mouths. Opposite Christ, John andAndrew, holding a scroll on which we read: " Art thou He thatshould come, or do we look for another? "Christ crossing the fields at harvest-tide. †A fortified town. Outside, a field of corn in ear; the disciplespluck the ears of corn; some rub them in their hands, and otherseat them. At the far end of the field Christ is seen, holding a scroll,and saying: " Have ye not read what David did when he was anhungered? " Before the gates of the town the Pharisees stand watching Him; one of them holds a scroll with these words: " Whydo they on the Sabbath day that which is not lawful? "Christ cures a man with a withered hand.The temple. Christ in the midst with His apostles; He gives Hisbenediction. A man before Him holds up his withered hand withthe other, which is healthy, and shows it to Christ. The Jews inthe background.Christ cures the blind and dumb demoniac.Christ with His apostles; He gives His blessing. Before Him ablind man, holding his crutch in one hand, and touching his earwith the other; a demon issues from his mouth.Christ sought out by His Mother and His brethren.Ahouse. Christ in the midst of it with His apostles, and teaching.Outside the gate, the Holy Virgin, and James Adelphothéos, andSimeon his brother, with two other men and women.Christ's side; he points to the Virgin outside.

• Matt. xi. 1. + Mark ii. 23.

Matt. xii. 10; Mark iii. 1; Luke vi. 6.A man atX 2308 APPENDIX II.Christ cures the paralysed in the Piscina probatica.*The pool. Below, five arches. An angel plunges his hands inthe waters of the pool. To the right, Christ with the apostles; Hegives His benediction. Before Him, a man with a rounded beard,and dress cut short at the knees and elbows. Near Him are othersick people stretched on their beds.Christ blessing the five loaves.†Mountains. A child carries a basket containing five loaves andtwo fish. Christ, standing looking up to heaven, holds the basketwith the left hand and blesses with the right. Near Him, Philipand Andrew; a multitude seated in five different places. Threeapostles, bending down a little, carry baskets on their shoulders;three take pieces of bread in the baskets placed before the men whoare sitting down. Others carry the baskets and distribute theportions among the people.Christ walking on the sea.The sea, with frightful and furious waves. In the milst of it, alittle vessel, in which are the apostles, terrified . Outside the vessel,Peter has sunk up to his knees in the sea, stretching out his arms.Christ, walking on the waves, takes him by the han l.Christ heals many sick who touch the hem of His garment.Christ blessing, and surrounded by the apostles. Agreat numberof persons all around afflicted by divers maladies. They touch thefringe of the Saviour's garments.

• Bethesda: John v. 2. "According to apocryphal legend it was into

this piscina that the colossal beam was thrown of which the Saviour's cross was made. The story is as follows: It is related in scholastic history that the Queen of Sheba saw this wood in the temple, and she said to Solomon, on her return to the palace, that He who would one day hang upon that tree would by His death bring about the destruction of the Jewish empire. Solomon therefore caused the tree to be taken and ordered it to be buried in the bowels of the earth. Thus in the spot where it was buried the Piscina probatica was hollowed out, and it was not only because of the descent of the angel, but also because of the virtue of the wood, that the waters were moved which restored health to the sick.When the time of the Passion of Christ drew near, this beam arose frombeneath the waters; and the Jews, on beholding it, begged for it, and fashioned the cross of the Lord therefrom. "-See Légende Dorée, vol. ii.,p. 109.† Matt. xiv. 15.THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 309Christ heals the daughter ofthe woman of Canaan. *Christ blessing, surrounded by apostles; a woman prostrate atHis feet. A little further on, behind this woman, a young girl laidupon a bed. A demon issues from her mouth.Christ healing a stammerer.The same as the dumb demoniac. (See p. 306.)Christ blessing the seven loaves.tSeven loaves and some little fishes in a basket. Christ, lookingup to heaven, blesses them. The apostles, two by two, carrybaskets filled with bread to be divided among the crowd. Theothers distribute them.A town.Christ curing the blind man at Bethsaida.‡Christ outside the town. Before Christ a blind manholding a staff; the Saviour touches his eyes with the right hand.The apostles stand near.The Transfiguration.A mountain with three summits and peaks. Christ stands inwhite garments upon the middle one; He blesses. A radiatinglight surrounds Him. On the peak to the right, Moses appears,holding the tables of the Law. The prophet Elias on that to theleft. Both are standing, and gaze supplicatingly at Christ. BelowChrist, Peter, James, and John lie prostrate, with heads upturned;they appear lost in ecstasy. Behind, on the mountain side, Christis again seen mounting with the three apostles, and showing themthe top ofthe mountain. On the other side the disciples are seendescending in fear, and looking behind. Christ, coming after them,blesses them. (See vol. i. p. 117, fig. 39.)Christ heals the lunatic child of the archon.§Christ, standing, with the apostles. Before him, at his feet, ayouth, chained and laid on his back, as if dead. With the foamproceeding from his mouth, a demon issues also. The father is onhis knees, holding out his hands towards Christ.

• Matt. xv. 22.

Mark viii. 22Matt. xv. 36.§ Matt. xvii. 14.310 APPENDIX II.Christ, with Peter, paying the didrachma ( tribute-money). *The sea-shore. Peter, with bare feet, and almost withoutclothing, is seated on a stone, and holds a fish attached to a sprig ofstraw. Alittle further on, Christ and Peter may be seen giving thesilver to a soldier.Christ blessing a little child. †Christ, seated, holds a little child with one hand; He blesses itwith the other, and, showing it to the apostles, He says: "Whosoever shall humble himself as this little child, the same is greatestin the kingdom of heaven." The apostles look at one another in astonishment.Christ questioned by a doctor of law.‡Christ seated; the disciples stand behind Him. A doctor of law,an old man with veiled head, holds a closed book in his hand; hestands before Christ and questions Him.Christ received into the home of Martha and Mary.A house. Within it, Christ seated upon a chair; behind Him,the apostles. Mary, seated at His feet, gazes up to Him and listenseagerly. Opposite to Him, a table laid. Martha brings a plate tothis table with more viands; she looks at Christ.Christ, in the synagogue, cures the woman with the spirit ofinfirmity.§The temple. A woman, quite bent down, leans upon a stick.Christ stands before her; He places His hand upon the head of thiswoman; He stretches out the other towards the Pharisees, lookingat them. The chief of the synagogue points out Christ in thecrowd, towards whom He turns His face. The apostles, standingbehind Christ, are in astonishment.Christ heals the dropsical man.A house. Within, Christ with the apostles. Before Him, adropsical man, naked, only wearing drawers. He is much swollen;he leans on two crutches and looks at Christ. All around, a crowdof Jews.

• Matt. xvii. 24.

Luke x. 25-28.Matt. xviii. 4.§ Luke xiii. 11.THE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 311Christ healing the ten lepers.The enclosure of a town. Christ with His disciples. Before Himten lepers naked, only wearing calicon, their bodies all coveredwith wounds. Christ blesses them.Christ seated.Christ blessing little children.Women lead little children before Him. Theapostles wish to repulse them, but Christ gives them His benediction.Christ questioned by the rich youth. *Houses. Christ seated. Behind Him the apostles; before Himthe rich youth, respectfully questioning Him.Christ teaching the sons of Zebedee.Christ standing. Before Him, James and John, their handsstretched out towards Him; their mother near them, kneeling, herhands and eyes raised towards Christ. He stretches out one hand,and holds a scroll in the other: " You know not what you ask. "Behind Him, the other apostles regard James and John withindignation.Christ enters into Jericho.The walls of a city. Outside the gates, Christ standing; theapostles behind Him. Before Him, a blind man holding a staff;Christ blesses him.Christ calling Zacchæus.†A city and a numerous company; a sycamore-tree in the midst,on the top of which is a man of small stature, with grey hair. Hewears a short and narrow dress; his head is covered with a handkerchief, and his eyes are fixed on Christ. Christ and His apostleslook at him from below; He blesses him with one hand; with theother He holds a scroll, on which is written: " Zacchæus, haste theeto descend."Christ leaving Jericho.The same as above, only that the faces of the blind men shouldbe different, for the sake of variety.Christ absolves the adulterous woman.The temple. Christ is seated writing on the ground, and says:"Let him who is without sin among you throw the first stone. "Mark x. 21. † Luke xix. 5.312 APPENDIX II.Behind Jesus, the apostles; before Him, a woman, standing, herhands crossed upon her breast. Scribes and Pharisees fly, looking behind.Christ on the point of being stoned by the Jews.Christ teaching. The apostles hear Him; all round, the Jewsholding stones.Christ cures the man born blind.The streets of the city of Jerusalem. A blind youth kneelingupon a stick with a knapsack slung upon his shoulders; his toesoutside his shoes. He is standing before Christ. Near Him theblind youth is again seen washing his eyes in the water of a pool.Christ a second time in danger ofbeing stoned.The same as before.The resurrection of Lazarus.A mountain with two peaks; behind the walls of a city of considerable size. The Hebrews in tears issue from the gates andadvance towards the centre of the mountain in the background.Before this mountain is a tomb; a man has raised a stone by whichit is covered. Lazarus stands upright in the midst of the tomb;another man takes off his winding-sheet. Christ blesses him withone hand; in the other He holds a scroll, and says, “ Lazarus comeforth." Behind Him are the apostles. Martha and Mary prostratethemselves in adoration at the feet of Jesus.Mary, sister of Lazarus,A house. Within, a table, before which Christ is seated, with theapostles, with Lazarus and Simon, his father. Mary, on her kneesbefore the Saviour, dries His feet with her hair and embraces them;near her, a glass vase with narrow neck. Opposite, Martha carriesa reed in her hand and looks at Christ with astonishment. Judasindignant, points out the vase of myrrh to the others.The Festival of Palms.The walls of a city. A mountain outside. Christ, seated on anass, gives his benediction. Behind Him, the apostles; before Him, atree upon a mountain. Children with hatchets cut branches fromTHE WONDERS OF THE GOSPEL. 313this tree, and strew them on the ground. Another child, havingclimbed a tree, looks down at Christ from the branches. Below,several children near the ass. Some carry branches, others thronground Him, others spread garments, others throw armfuls of branchesunder His feet. Outside the city gate stand Jews, men and women,carrying children in their arms, upon their shoulders, and holdingbranches; others watch Christ from the summits of the walls andthe city gates.Christ drives the salesmen and the merchantsfrom the Temple.The temple. Inside, tables and hanging cases, pieces of moneyscattered, here and there, upon the ground. Some men draggingoxen, others sheep, others asses; others carry doves. They wearfur caps upon their heads or veils or hats. They take flight, looking behind them frightened. Christ, armed with a whip, pursuesthem in anger. The apostles follow Him.Christ heals the blind and the lame in the Temple.The temple. Christ inside. The apostles are behind Him, theblind and the lame, before Him. Some lean on crutches, others holdstaff. Christ blesses them.Christ curses a fig-tree.A fortified city. Outside are mountains and a fig-tree, barren,and with withered leaves. Christ, looking at it, stretches His handtowards it. Behind, the apostles astonished .Christ questioned by a lawyer.Christ seated with the apostles. Before Him, a crowd of scribesand pharisees, who converse; one among them turns his face towards Christ and speaks to Him.Christ commends the widow's pennies.The temple. A box into which Pharisees and archontes throwcoins, some of gold and some of silver. In the midst of them awidow throws in two pennies. Christ seated opposite points out thewidow to the disciples, and says on His scroll: " Verily I sayunto you, this woman hath cast in more than they all.314 APPENDIX II.Christ in the house of Simon; a woman anoints his head withmyrrh.A house. Christ seated at the table with Simon and theapostles. A young servant. Behind Christ a woman carrying aglass vase, which she breaks above the head of Jesus.THE HOLY PASSION.The compact of Judas with the Jews,A house. Within, Annas and Caiaphas seated on thrones; thescribes and Pharisees seated around them. In front, a chest, onwhich one among them counts out the silver. Judas before thechest; he extends his hands towards the silver which Annas showshim.The holy ablution.A house. Peter, seated upon a seat, points to his feet with onehand; he places the other upon his head. * Christ kneeling beforehim, His robe raised and fastened with a towel for a girdle; He takesthe foot of Peter with one hand and stretches out the other towardshim. Before the knees of Christ stands a basin ofwater and a ewer.The other apostles seated behind talk to each other; many of themfasten their shoes.In another place Christ is again seen seated and again dressed.He extends one hand to His disciples, and with the other He holds ascroll, on which He says: " Verily I say unto you, one of you shallbetray Me." The apostles, behind Him, look at Him alarmed, andspeak to one another.The mystic meal.A house. Inside a table with bread and plates full of viands; acup and a large flask of wine. Christ seated at this table with Hisapostles. John at His left side leaning on His breast; Judas † to theright stretches out his hand towards a dish and looks at Christ.The prayer ofChrist.A garden with trees. In the middle, Christ on His knees, Hishands and eyes raised to heaven; drops of blood fall from His face

• Bythis action signifying the disciple's words: " Not my feet only, but also my hands and my head." This treatment of the subject is found among the sculptures in the cloister of the cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris.

† Judas is represented with a dark nimbus. See vol. i. , p. 157.THE HOLY PASSION. 315upon the ground. An angel above, surrounded by a great light,stretches out his hands towards Him. Alittle behind Christ, Peter,James, and John asleep. Above, Christ may be seen again takingPeter by his mantle and holding a scroll with these words:"Is it thus that you have strength to watch with me? "The treason of Judas.A garden. Judas in the midst embracing Christ, who gives himthe kiss of peace. Behind Judas, Peter, and, below him, a youngsoldier * on his knees, whose ear he strikes with his sword. Soldiersstand round Christ, some with naked swords, others with lances,others with lanterns and torches; others seize Christ and strike Him.Judgment of Christ.A palace. An old man with a great beard, in ample robes andwith a large mitre-shaped hat, † stands upon his throne and rendshis garments. Caiaphas, grey-haired and with a long beard, is athis side, filled with indignation. Before them Christ, bound. Aservant strikes Him; other soldiers maltreat Him. Scribes andPharisees. Two men, standing up before Christ, point Him out toAnnas.The third denial of Peter.Below the palace of Annas, where Christ is condemned, Peter isstanding on a slight eminence. Before him, a fire may be seen andtwo soldiers warming themselves at it and questioning Peter.Further on, Peter near the gate of the palace, much terrified andstretching out his arms; a young girl shows him Christ. Above,upon a window, a co*ck crows. Peter is again seen in another place,weeping.Christ condemned.A palace. Pilate, young, with a large beard and splendidvestments; his head-dress embroidered with gold. He is seatedupon a throne. Before him, Christ bound, led by soldiers. Acrowd of scribes and Pharisees point out Jesus to Pilate.Judas detests his crime and hangs himself.The temple. Annas and Caiaphas, scribes and Pharisees seatedbefore them. A chest. Judas, standing a little bent down, with

• Malchus.

A kind of mitre with two points; the hat of the high priest.316 APPENDIX II.his two hands throws the pieces of silver down upon the chest.The others with one hand on their breast stretch out the other toJudas. Outside the temple are mountains, Judas hanging to atree so that the branches bend beneath his weight till his toes touchthe ground.Christ condemned by Herod.A palace. Herod, an old man with round beard, in regal robes,is seated upon a throne. Behind him are soldiers; Christ is beforehim, and two soldiers clothe him in white. Behind, a crowd ofJews are seen.Pilate washes his hands.A palace. Pilate seated on a throne, his eyes turned towards theJews. One man before him, carrying a basin and ewer, pours outthe water and washes his hands. Behind him a youth whispersin his ear. Near the throne another youth writes these words on ascroll: 66' Lead out this Jesus of Nazareth to the public place ofexecution and fasten Him to a cross, between two thieves, for Hehath corrupted the people, insulted Cæsar, and, as witnessed by thewise men of the people, He hath falsely proclaimed Himself to beMessiah." The Christ stands before him, soldiers seize upon Him.Annas, Caiaphas and other Jews lay their hands upon the heads ofa group of children who stand before them, look towards Pilateand approve his sentence.The Flagellation.The Christ, his hands tied behind Him, is fastened to a column;His body is covered with stripes. Two soldiers flog Him.Christ mocked.*Christ stripped, only clothed in the purple chlamys, a crown ofthorns upon His head, and a reed in His right hand. Soldiersstand around laughing at Him: some kneel, others strike Him onthe head with a rod.Christ bearing His Cross.Mountains. Soldiers, on foot and on horseback, surround Christ;some among them carry a standard. Christ, exhausted, falls to theearth and supports Himself with one hand. Standing before HimSimon the Cyrenian may be seen, grey-haired and with a round

• Matt. xxvii. 25.

THE HOLY PASSION. 317beard, wearing a short dress. He takes the cross upon His own shoulders. Behind Him may be seen the Holy Virgin, JohnTheologos, and other women weeping. A soldier pushes them backwith his baton.Christ nailed to the Cross.A crowd of Jews and soldiers seen upon a mountain. A crosslaid upon the ground in their midst. The body of Christ upon it.Three soldiers hold it by ropes at the arms and foot. Other soldiersbring nails and drive them with a hammer through His feet andhands. In another place Christ is seen standing before the cross.A soldier holds a cup of wine to His mouth; but Christ turns awayHis head and refuses to drink.The Crucifixion of Christ.Christ upon the cross on a mountain. At each side of Him thethieves are to be seen, crucified. The thief to the right, a greyhaired man with round beard, says to Christ, " Lord, remember mewhen thou comest into Thy kingdom." He to the left , young andbeardless, turns back and says to Him: " If thou art the Christ, saveThyself and us. " A tablet may be seen, nailed to the top of thecross of Christ, on which are these characters, I.N.R.I. Below andto the right, a soldier on horseback pierces the right side of Christ;water and blood flow forth. Behind Him, the mother of Christmay be seen insensible; other women, carrying myrrh, support her.Near her John Theologos stands in sorrow, his cheek resting on hishand. * St. Longinus the centurion looks at Christ; he raises hishand and blesses God. A soldier on horseback to the left holdsa sponge attached to the end of a rod, which he reaches tothe mouth of Christ. Near at hand are other soldiers, scribes,pharisees, and a crowd of people. Some speak to each other andpoint to Christ; others look at Him terrified; others contemptuously; others stretch out their hands to Him, saying, “ Hesaved others, Himself He cannot save." Three soldiers are seatedand parting His garments among them. The central figure in thisgroup has his eyes shut, and is stretching out his hands towardsthose of the others on the right and left. At the foot of the cross isThis gesture is very common in the Latin Crucifixions, especially of the Roman period. See vol. i. supra, fig. 3, p. 29.318 APPENDIX II.a little hollow, inside which may be seen the skull of Adam and twocross-bones stained by the blood that falls from the feet of Christ. *Joseph demanding the Lord's body.A palace. Pilate within, seated on a throne. A soldier at hisback holds a sword in its sheath. Joseph, an old man, bent, standsbefore Pilate stretching out his hands towards him. The centurionbetween Joseph and Pilate speaks to the latter.The Descentfrom the Cross.Mountains. The cross fixed in the ground with a ladder placedagainst it. Joseph mounts to the top of the ladder, clasps Christround the waist, and lets Him down. Below is the Holy Virgin,standing. She receives the body in her arms, and kisses the face.Behind her, women † may be seen carrying perfumes, Mary Magdalene takes the left hand of Christ and kisses it. Behind Josephstands John Theologos, and kisses the right hand of Christ. Nicodemus is bending down, extracting the nails from the feet of Christwith the help of pincers; a basket at His side. Below the crossthe head of Adam may be seen, as in the Crucifixion.The Lamentation at the tomb.A great square tomb. Below it a winding-sheet unfolded, uponwhich the body of Christ is laid, naked. The Holy Virgin, kneeling,bends over Him and kisses His face. Joseph kisses His feet, andthe Theologos, § His right hand. Behind Joseph, Nicodemus, leaningupon the ladder, gazes at Christ. Near the Virgin, Mary Magdalenethrowing up her arms to heaven and weeping; the other women,who carried spices, tear their hair. Behind them the cross with itsinscription may be seen, Above Christ, the basket of Nicodemus,containing nails, pincers, and hammer; near that a vase in the formof a small bottle.

• See vol. i. , page 271: note on the nails and the chalice in the Crucifixion; also fig. 68, p. 269.

† These women are the myrrhophora of whom mention will be made further on.We have an echo, as it were, from the funereal rites of antiquity in this term, "the lamentation.” ·§ St. John the Evangelist. The Greeks surnamed him the Theologian because he spoke more clearly than the other evangelists about God and the divinity of the Word.THE HOLY PASSION. 319Christ laid in the tomb.A mountain, and a stone tomb on the side. Nicodemus carriesthe body of Christ in its shroud. He supports the head. Outsidethe tomb the Holy Virgin clasps the body in her arms, and coversit with kisses . Joseph supports the knees, and John, bending downa little, holds the feet. The women who carry the myrrh weep.The cross may be seen behind the mountain.The soldiers watching the tomb.A marble tomb, sealed with four seals. The soldiers sleep around:some lean against their bucklers, others are on their knees, otherson their hands. St. Longinus, the centurion, seated in their midstin perplexity. Before the tomb the women bearing myrrh, seatedand weeping. One holds a small case in her hands; another, asmall glass vase.The Descent into Hell.Hell, like a dark cave, beneath the mountains. Radiant angelschain Beelzebub, the Prince of Darkness; they strike at otherdemons, and pursue others with their lances. Several men, nakedand fettered, look upwards. A large number of broken locksmay be seen. The gates of hell are cast down; Christ tramplesthem beneath His feet. The Saviour takes Adam by the righthand, and Eve by the left. To the left of the Saviour; the Harbinger points to Him with his forefinger. David is near Him, as wellas other righteous kings, with crowns and aureoles. To the left theProphets Jonas, Isaiah, and Jeremiah; the righteous Abel, andmany others with aureoles. A brilliant light and crowd of angelsall around.The Resurrection of Christ.The tomb half open; two angels, clothed in white, seated at eachend . Christ tramples on the stone which covered the tomb. Heblesses with the right hand, while He holds the banner with thegolden cross in the left . Some of the soldiers below take flight;others lie, as if dead, upon the ground. In the distance are thewomen carrying myrrh.An angel appears to the women carrying myrrh, and announcesthe Resurrection to them.The open tomb. Angel clothed in white is seated on the lid; heholds a lance with one hand, and with the other points to he320 APPENDIX II.shroud and winding-sheet in the bottom of the tomb. The womenbearing myrrh; they hold vases in their hands.Christ appears to the myrrh-bearers, saying " Rejvice ye. "Christ standing, His two hands raised in blessing. The HolyVirgin on His right; Mary Magdalene on His left. They fall on their knees and embrace His feet.Peter and John, arriving at the Tomb, believe in the Resurrection.The tomb. Peter stoops to look within, and touches the shroudwith his hands. John standing outside, looks on with astonishment. Near him, Mary Magdalene weeping.Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene. *The tomb; two angels in white are seated above it. Before thetomb, Christ, standing, holds His mantle in one hand; in the otherHe carries a scroll, on which is written: "Mary, touch Me not! "Mary, kneeling before Him, prays that she may touch His feet.Christ, at Emmaus, recognised by Luke and Cleophas inthebreaking ofbread.A house. A table and viands inside. Luke and Cleophas seated near. Christ seated between them; He holds the bread andblesses it.Christ, appearing to the two Apostles, eats before them.A house. The apostles inside, and Christ among them. Peterstands before Him, holding a plate, on which is half a fish and ahoneycomb. Christ with the right hand blesses the plate; Hetakes the fish and honey with the left.The touch of Thomas.Ahouse; Christ within. Raising His right hand in the air, Helifts His garment with the left, and reveals the wound in His rightside. Thomas standing near Him in fear puts one hand into the

• This subject has been sculptured, about the end of the thirteenth century, in the cloister of the choir of Notre Dame de Paris, on the south side. In the Cathedral of Autun, a " Noli me Tangere " of the Renaissance

period is one of the most gracious images we know of. The perfection with which the draperies are executed is especially to be noticed.THE HOLY PASSION. 32166 hollow of the wound, and holds a scroll in the other, whereon hesays: My Lord and my God! " The other apostles stand roundin wonder.Christ appearing to the Apostles on the shore ofthe Lake of Tiberias.The lake. In the midst a vessel, on which ten of the apostlesare seen drawing in a net filled with fish . Christ, standing on theshore of the sea, blesses the apostles. Peter, naked, plunges intothe sea and approaches Him. Behind Christ, fish on a fire ofcharcoal.Christ's threefold question to Peter.The sea. A ship drawn up on shore. The apostles have left itChrist, standing, looks at Peter, and holds a scroll, on which hesays: " Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me? " Peter, before himstanding awe-stricken, says upon his scroll: " Lord, Thou knowestall things: Thou knowest that I love Thee."Christ appears to the Apostles upon the Mount of Galilee.A mountain. Christ, standing, blesses with two hands. BeforeHim Peter and the other apostles, their hands stretched out towards Him.The Ascension of Christ.A mountain with a grove of olive-trees. Above, the apostles,astonished, with hands outstretched, gaze up to heaven. The VirginMother in their midst also gazes upwards. Two angels clothed inwhite at her side point out the rising Christ to the apostles. The angels hold scrolls. The angel on the right says: "Ye men ofGalilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven? " The other saith:"This same Jesus, which is taken up from you into heaven, shallso come in like manner as ye have seen Him go into heaven."Above them, the Christ seated upon clouds, arises into heaven; Heis received by a multitude of angels, with trumpets and cymbalsand many instruments of music.The Descent of the Holy Spirit.A house. * Twelve apostles seated in a circle. Under them alittle vault, in the midst of which an aged man holds, in both handsThis is the guest- chamber.VOL II. Σ322 APPENDIX II.before him, a sheet containing twelve scrolls rolled up; he wears acrown upon his head. Above him this inscription: " The World. ”Above the house the Holy Spirit is seen in the form of a dove; agreat light all around. Twelve tongues of fire escape from thisdove and rest upon the apostles. *HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES.The Parable ofthe Seed.†The subject is painted in this manner: Christ stands teaching;He holds the gospel. Four orders of men stand before Him. Thefirst, those who pass along the wayside talking to one another,regardless of Christ; demons hold them in a leash. The secondorder, those on stony ground: men appearing to listen gladly.Idols are behind them; they turn and worship them. A tyrantand his soldiers menace them with naked swords. The third order,those among thorns: men carousing and eating with women;demons standing near them. The fourth order, those who are ongood ground: monks at prayer in grottoes before images of Christand the Virgin, surrounded by lights. Others appear as deacons,priests, or laity, at prayer in churches or monasteries.The Parable of the Tares.Christ with the gospel. Before Him a great crowd, some ofwhom appear to be patriarchs, some martyrs, and others saints, withnimbi round their heads. Angels stand near them. Heretics with

• The personification of the World under the figure of an old man,

crowned, is introduced here to indicate that, after the descent of the HolySpirit, the apostles will be dispersed throughout all the earth to teach,convert and baptise all nations. The twelve rolls that the World holds inhis lap, are the Gospels, written in twelve different languages, and each apostle takes his own. This personification of the World on the day of Pentecost is quite peculiar to the Byzantines; it does not exist with us. In the catholicon of Chilandari at Mount Athos, the World is replaced by the prophet Joel . He is crowned as a king, and he holds twelve rolls upon asheet. His name is painted near his head. The reason this prophet is chosen to fill the office of the World at Pentecost is that he said: " I willpour out My Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters willprophecy; your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions, and also upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those days will I pour out My Spirit. ""A sower went forth to sow his seed." (Mark iv. 2.)"The kingdom of heaven is like unto a man which sowed good seed. "(Matt. xiii. 24.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES. 323demons on their shoulders are in the middle. Hell and paradiseappear at the side. Angels lead the orthodox into paradise; thedemons bind the heretics in chains and drag them into hell.Parable of the Mustard Seed.*Description. -Christ in a tomb. A tree issues from His mouth;the apostles among its branches with open scrolls. Below, men arelooking up to the apostles.Parable ofthe Leaven.†Description.-Christ holds the gospel, and says: "Go teach allpeople." Before Him, the apostles baptise; some preach to others.An innumerable multitude assembled before them.Parable of the Treasure.Description.-St. Paul saying upon a scroll: "We speak thehidden wisdom."§ Men and women stand around; precious objects, books, and silver are scattered on the ground behind. Othersare seen to shatter idols.The Parable of the Searcher for Goodly Pearls.Description. -Christ stands upright in the act of blessing.Before Him the holy King of India, Josaphat, ¶ clad in ecclesiasticalrobes, stands respectfully. Near the king stands St. Barlaam, ** whopoints with his finger to Christ, saying on his scroll: " Behold thegoodly pearl." Behind him lie a crown, kingly robes, riches andfragments of shattered idols cast upon the ground. The Greeksages stand near, holding their scrolls. These words may be readabove the figure of Christ: " Jesus Christ, the pearl of greatprice. ""The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mustard seed. " (Matt.xiii. 31.)"The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven." (Matt. xiii. 33.)"The kingdom of heaven is like unto a treasure hid in a field."(Matt. xiii. 44.)"Which God ordained before the world unto our glory." (1 Cor. ii. 7.)Matt. xiii. 45.See the Légende Dorée: De Sanctis Barlaam et Josaphet.

• • This is in allusion to the legend of Barlaam the Saint, who dwelt in

the desert of Sennaar, and who possessed a pearl of such wondrous virtuethat, if a man approached it whose eye was not single or heart pure, hewould become powerless.Y 2324 APPENDIX II.The Parable ofthe Net. *Description. -A crowd of people belonging to different nations.The apostles stand around. To the right, behind the apostles,paradise may be seen, and Peter in the midst surrounded by a greatcrowd. To the left, hell may be seen, and men being chastised by demons.The Parable of the Hundred Sheep.†Description. The heavens. Nine orders of angels in the highestheaven, with an empty throne in the centre. Below, the Descent ofChrist into Hell may be seen. (See above, page 98.)The Parable ofthe Drachm.‡Description. -Christ crucified; a great light surrounds Him. Anumber of men are breaking their idols; others are being baptised;others, like the Greek monks, are praying in grottoes. Others , on their knees, prostrate themselves before the cross. Heaven is seenabove the cross, with the nine orders of angels holding harps andtrumpets. Christ is seen throned in their midst. He holds Adamwith one hand, and a scroll with the other, on which He says:Rejoice with Me, for I have found the piece which I had lost."66Parable ofthe Debtor for ten thousand talents.§Description. -Christ seated as a king upon His throne, blessing.He is surrounded by angels. Before Him a man kneels, saying:"Have patience with me, and I will pay Thee all." Demons arebehind Him, carrying a number of written papers. Further on thesame man may be seen behind Christ, and dragging another man toprison, saying these words, " Pay me that thou owest." Again, wesee Christ in another place seated; two angels look at Him andpoint out this man. The man subsequently appears before Christand is dragged away by demons, who bind him in hell.Parable ofthe Labourers hired for the day.Description. -Christ standing. The holy patriarchs are seen"The kingdom of heaven is like unto a net."+ "What man of you having a hundred sheep.""What woman having ten pieces of silver."" The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a certain king which wouldtake account of his servants." (Matt. xviii. 23.)(Matt. xiii. 47.)(Luke xv. 4.)(Luke xv. 8.)"The kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is an householder,which went out early in the morning to hire labourers." (Matt. xx. i.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES. 325behind the Saviour, divided into four companies or orders. Enochoffering sacrifice, Noah carrying an ark, and other aged men atprayer with him, compose the first order. Above them is written," The labourers of the first hour. " To the second order belongAbraham sacrificing Isaac, Isaac blessing Jacob, Jaccb blessing his twelve sons. Above them is written, " The labourers of the thirdhour." To the third order belong Moses holding his tables andteaching the Hebrews; Aaron and other righteous men stand nearhim. Above them is written: " The labourers of the eighth hour."In the fourth order are the prophets, some stoned, some sawnasunder, some in chains. Above them is written, " The labourersof the ninth hour." The apostles and the multitude kneel beforeChrist. Above them is written, " The labourers of the eleventhhour." Christ again appears in another part of the composition, irparadise, with a crowd of angels and the orders of the saints. Theapostles are seated near. The righteous Enoch and those belongingto his order hold crowns in their hands; they say to Christ, pointingout the apostles to Him: " These last have wrought but one hour,and Thou hast made them equal unto us, which have borne theburden and heat of the day." Christ answers gently: " My friend,I do thee no wrong; didst not thou agree with Me for a penny?Take that thine is, and go thy way."The Parable of the Two Sons. *Description.-Christ standing. At one side of Him are seen theJews, scribes and pharisees. The scribes turn from Him, despisinghis words. On the other side publicans, fallen women, and heathensprostrate themselves before Him.Parable ofthe wicked Husbandmen.†Description.-A town. The temple and sanctuary. The doctorsholding papers and teaching; a crowd of Hebrews before them. Inthe midst of the sanctuary the Prophet Zecharias may be seen, witha soldier cutting his throat. Outside the temple, a king strikes theProphet Micah in the face. Close by, men stone the ProphetZachariah, son of Judas. Outside the town, the Crucifixion of Christupon a mountain may be seen."A certain man had two sons; and he came to the first, and said,Son, go work to-day in my vineyard." (Matt. xxi. 28.)"There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard.'xxi. 33.)(Matt.326 APPENDIX II.The Parable of the Corner-stone.*Description. A church. The apostles, patriarchs and saints are inside, teaching and baptising. Greeks and Hebrews embrace.Christ is above, blessing them. Close at hand is Jerusalem on fire;soldiers issuing forth in pursuit of the Jews. The Prophet Isaiahpoints to Christ, and says upon his scroll: " Behold I lay in Zionfor a foundation a stone, a tried stone, a precious corner-stone, a surefoundation: he that believeth shall not be deceived."Parable ofthe Marriage Feast of the King's Son.tDescription.-A church. Outside, at one side, Jews are seencounting money; oxen and other animals before them. Elsewhere,women amuse themselves with music and dancing. In another partof the composition Isaiah suffers martyrdom-is being sawn in two.Again, Jeremiah is seen thrown by the people into a pit full of filth.At the other side of the church the apostles are represented asteaching. Before them stand heathen, publicans, fallen women, allcasting themselves at their feet, and breaking their idols. A tablestands in the midst of the church, on which a cup and plate areplaced. The orders of the angels and choir of saints, all clothed inwhite and bearing lamps, are ranged in circles round. In the midsta man in squalid garments may be seen. Demons bind his feet andhands, and drag him towards hell. Christ, clothed in a regal andpatriarchial costume, standing near him, says upon a scroll:" Friend, how comest thou in hither, not having a weddinggarment? "Parable ofthe Great Supper.‡Description. -Christ standing, in the act of blessing, surroundedby the apostles. Jews, doctors, and pharisees are to His left. Someare eating and drinking, others carry on their business. The monksprostrate themselves at the feet of Christ. On the other side theapostles are teaching the heathen, who also kneel before Him.Parable ofthe Talents.§Description.-Paradise. —Outside, Christ seated like a king upon

• " The stone which the builders rejected," &c. (Matt. xxi. 42.)

"The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a certain king. " (Matt. xxii.i. 14.)"A certain man made a great supper, and bade many." (Luke xiv. 16.)"A man travelling into a far country, called his servants and gave them his goods. " (Matt. xxv. v. 14.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES. 327a throne; angels placed in a circle around Him. To His right, aholy high priest, and a holy priest holding the gospels, gaze uponChrist and draw His attention to a crowd of holy men and womenin the background. Christ blesses them. On the left-hand side,presents the gospel to him with one hand, and points to it with theother hand, saying, " Lo there, that is thine." Demons behind force him down to hell.Parable ofthe houses builded on a rock, or on the sand. *Description. -Christ. The apostles behind Him; before Himare two men, one old and the other young, both of whom arelistening eagerly to His words. Further on, the old man is seenpraying in a grotto. Fallen women and demons surround him andfire darts at him. Other men pull him by his garments. Inanother part of the composition the young man is seen eating anddrinking at table with women, while demons watch him-laughing.Parable ofthe blind leader.†Description.-High priests, Pharisees, and doctors are seen teaching. Demons on their shoulders are bandaging their eyes. Jesusstands before them and appears to listen. Demons cover their eyesalso. Other demons, having cast a cord around them, drag theminto hell. Christ, standing in the distance, points them out to Hisdisciples, and says to them, on His scroll, " If a blind man leadanother blind man, both shall fall into the ditch."The Parable of the Ten Virgins.‡Description.-Paradise. Christ looks out from the interior. Thefive wise virgins carrying lighted lamps are behind Him. The fivefoolish virgins are outside, holding their lamps, which have goneout; they knock at the door of Paradise, saying: " Lord, Lord, openunto us." But Christ answers, " Verily I say unto you I knowyou"Every one that heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them."(Matt. vii. 26.)+ " If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch. " (Matt.xv. 14.)"The kingdom of heaven shall be likened unto ten virgins. " (Matt.XXV. 1.)328 APPENDIX II.not." Tombs may be seen further on. Above an angel sounds atrumpet.

The Parable of the Man whofell among Thieves.†Description.-Paradise. A fiery sword at the gate: Adam andEve outside, naked and weeping. Further on a crowd of men, someworshipping idols, cats and dogs; others sacrificing oxen; otherssacrificing men to idols; others eating and drinking with women.Moses on one side, with the Tables of the Law, and Aaron turn tolook at them. The prophet Isaiah also, on the other side, turns backto look at them. Further on a church may be seen, in which theapostles are baptising some, teaching others, or administering theCommunion. Christ in front presents the Tables of the Lawand theBook of St. Paul with one hand, and with the other carries His crossupon His shoulders, and points at the aforesaid persons behind Him.The parable of the Unjust Judge. ‡Description. -Christ above in heaven. Below Him an ecclesiastic

• This subject is one of the most common in our Gothic and Roman- esque sculpture. The ten virgins appear as statues larger than life in the cathedral of Strasburg; as statues, half life-size, in the cathedral of Rheims;

as statuettes in the churches of St. Denis and St. Germain l'Auxerrois.The same subject occurs three times in the side porches of the cathedral of Chartres; twice in the cathedral of Paris, and also at Amiens. The wise virgins, generally dressed as nuns, with long robes and wearing veils,carry their lamps lighted, and carefully trim them; the foolish, generally women of the world, with bare heads, or wearing circular fluted hats and clothes clinging tightly to the figure, hold their lamps upside down, and without wicks or oil. The calm faces of the wise, and the troubled faces of the foolish reveal the nature of their souls. A withered olive- tree,without fruit or leaves, grows at the side of the foolish, and a healthy olive-tree, laden with ripe fruit and ready with abundance of oil , is beside the wise, in the cathedral of Amiens. At Strasburg, and on a glass window in the cathedral of Troyes, Christ leads the wise, and Satan the foolish,virgins. At St. Germain l'Auxerrois, in the top of a voussoir, Christ leans out of heaven holding a scroll in each hand; the one for the foolish is inscribed: " I know you not; " that for the wise: " Watch and pray. " In Freiburg-in-Breisgau, where they are seen as statues at each side within the porch, a little angel holds a scroll on which we read: " Watch andpray." At the cathedral of Rheims a temple with closed doors is seen near the foolish and beside the wise, a church with folding doors thrown open,which is a figure of Paradise. Occasionally, as in the cathedrals of Rheims and Laon, the foolish virgins wear the nimbus as well as the wise: we have pointed out and tried to explain this curious point at p. 136, vol. i.of this work.+ Luke x. 30."There was in a city a judge who feared not God," &c. (Lukexviii. 1.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES. 329is praying, but tormented by heretics, who in their turn are pursuedby an angel armed with a sword. Farther on a young saint maybe seen in the midst of the fire. Water falls from heaven to refreshher. Two angels stand near her. In another part a saint iskneeling at prayer. He is surrounded by demons who shoot arrowsat him; the angel of the Lord puts them to flight.The Parable ofthe Prodigal Son. *Description. -The temple and the altar. Near the temple theelder son at prayer. Close at hand the younger son is showneating and drinking with low women. This prodigal son is againseen in the midst of the temple. Christ administers the Communionto him. The apostles anoint him with myrrh and give him across. Choirs of angels around the altar sing their joy with harpsand trumpets, and other instruments of music. Outside the temple,Christ is again seen taking the prodigal son in His arms, and kissinghis face. In another place, again, Christ calls the elder son toHim, and says upon His scroll: " My son, thou art ever with Me,and all that I have is thine." The son looks at Him and turnsaway.tParable ofthe Rich Man who had great Possessions.‡Description.-Houses. A man wearing a purple robe and furhat looks much embarrassed. Before him lie heaps of corn. Menoverturn his granaries and rebuild others . A little farther on thesame man is seen again, reclining on his couch of gold. Demons,with three-pronged forks, stand around him, preying on his soul.Parable ofthe wicked Rich Man and Lazarus the beggar.§Description. -A palace. Inside, a table is seen, set out with avariety of dishes. A man arrayed in rich and splendid dress is

• "A certain man had two sons; the younger of them said to his father ... " (Luke xv.)

The parable of the prodigal son is one of the most common subjects in Gothic art, especially in stained glass. It is found treated with elabo- rate detail on the windows of the cathedrals of Chartres and Bourges.But, in Western art, the parable itself is literally represented, not its interpretation, as with the Greeks, and as prescribed in our Guide. [See Monographie de la Cathédrale de Chartres, publiée par le Ministère de l'Instruction publique, lière livraison; et Les Vitraux Peints de Bourges,par MM. Arthur Martin et Charles Cahier, 5ième livraison. ]Luke xii. 16."There was a certain rich man, which was clothed in fine linen(Luke xvi. )... "330 APPENDIX II.seated at this table, holding a cup in his hand. He is served by acrowd of slaves, who offer him divers dainties. In another place heis seen again, in bed, demons preying on his soul; women andchildren weeping around him. Below the palace gate, a naked man,full of sores, is laid upon the ground. Dogs lick his sores. Davidappears above him with a harp, and the ranks of angels, who receivehis soul with music of divers instruments . Hell is farther on in thecomposition. Here the rich man is seen in flames, and saying:" Father Abraham, have mercy on me." Opposite to him is Abraham in Paradise, with Lazarus in his bosom. Abrahamanswers the rich man: " Son, remember that thou in thy lifetimereceivedst thy good things.'99*Parable ofthe Strong Man.†

Description. -Christ stands in the act of blessing. Matthew, the publican, the apostle Paul, Mary Magdalene, a fallen woman, and many other converted sinners throw themselves before His feet. In another part, angels bind the devil and cast him into hell.

The Parable of the Candle.‡Description. The temple. A holy high priest preaching in achair; an angel speaks into his ear, and he is surrounded by abright light. Men are seen below him, listening eagerly, and withraised hands. Christ blesses them from above, and says in Hisgospel: " Let your light so shine before men that they may see.”Parable ofthe Barren Fig-tree.§Description. The temple. In the midst, a man on a grey horse,his arms crossed upon his breast. Near him, Death, carrying ascythe. || Christ orders the man to be slain. The guardian angel ofthis man's life kneels before Christ, praying to Him, and saying,"Lord, grant him yet a while."This subject is a common one in France. Generally, as at St. Lazare at Autun, or St. Saturnin at Toulouse, it is found at the church door and at the side porch through which the poor are admitted, and where the rich pass by, whose aid they solicit."No man can enter into a strong man's house," &c. (Mark iii. 27)."Neither do men light a candle," &c. (Matt. v. 15.)"A certain man had a fig-tree planted in his vineyard." (Luke xiii. 6.)This is an instance of the lingering traditions of pagan mythology among the Greeks. In the refectory of Vatopédi, Death, a skeleton still covered by its skin, carries a scythe in his left hand and a sickle in his right. This image of Death is inscribed " Charon. "HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES. 331Parable ofhim who would build a tower.*Description. -St. Paul, preaching, and saying upon his scroll:"I have laid the foundation, which is Jesus Christ." He is surrounded by men, who listen attentively. In another part, men areseen eating and drinking and working. They are seized by demons,and above them these words are written: "These are they whichthrive yet cannot accomplish."Parable ofthe Publican and the Pharisee.tDescription. The temple, with a flight of steps. The Phariseein front of the sanctuary; an old man, with a great beard and fullrobes, his head veiled, stands gazing up to heaven. He lifts onehand; with the other he points at the publican. The demon ofpride is seated on his head.‡ The publican opposite to him, witheyes fixed on the ground, strikes his breast. An angel blesses himfrom above.Parable ofthe Faithful and Wise Servants.§Description. The temple. Inside, a venerable old man; thehigh priest is preaching. A holy priest holds a cup in his hand.A holy deacon carries a disc upon his head. Others hold lamps andcensers. Other disciples and a crowd of people at prayer. Christ blesses them from above.Parable ofthe Evil Servants. ||Description.-Houses. Inside of them are Christian men ecclesiastics, monks, laity-eating and drinking to the sound of dancesand drums, and some quarrelling. Death is in their midst, mowingthem down with his scythe. Christ is above them; angels, alsoholding scythes, ¶ form a circle round Him. The impious andheretics are devoured by the flames of hell close by the house."Which of you, intending to build a tower, " &c. (Luke xiv. 28.)"Two men went up into the temple to pray." (Luke xviii. 10.)This method of presenting a visible translation of evil thoughts is common in the middle ages: it is not unusual to see demons on the head.or at the ear of Herod, ordering the massacre of the Innocents (see thecloister of the choir of Notre Dame de Paris. ) This evil spirit is sometimes represented as a black emaciated bird (see vol. i. of this work, p.465, fig. 120; p. 466, fig. 121; vol. ii. p. 142, fig. 189: Goliath)."Who then is the faithful and wise servant?" (Matt. xxiv. 45.)"If the evil servant shall say in his heart (Matt. xxiv. 48.)In France, as in the Last Judgment of Jean Cousin, these angels hold sickles.99332 APPENDIX II.Demons seize upon the men in these houses, in order to drag themdown into hell.Parable ofthe Salt ofthe Earth.*Description.-The temple. High priests, priests, disciples. Someare teaching from their chairs, others from their thrones, othersstudying their books. St. Paul, holding a scroll, says: "Let yourspeech be always with grace, seasoned with salt."tThe Parable of Light and Darkness.‡Description. -Christ on one side surrounded by a great light; Heholds the gospel, and says: "I am the light of the world." TheApostles stand near Him. On the other side, the Prince of Darkness, the devil, surrounded by gloom; § near him the doctors of thePharisees, and a crowd of impious persons form a circle around himturning and moving away from Christ.The Parable of the Meat. ||Description.-A house. Men eating and drinking inside. Thetemple near at hand, in which other persons are seen to partake ofthe divine mysteries of the Communion. Others preach, and otherspray. Christ points them out to His disciples, saying on His scroll:" Labour not for the meat which perisheth, but for that meat whichendureth unto everlasting life."Parable ofthe Door and the Sheepfold.¶Description.-A church. At the gate outside, Christ holds theopen gospel, saying, " I am the Door; he that entereth in throughMe shall be saved." Moses is behind the gate, holding the tables of

• If the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be salted."

(Matt. v. 13.)+ Coloss. iv. 6."Light is come unto the world, and men love darkness rather thanlight." (John iii. 19. )Satan is notonly enveloped by darkness himself, but he causes it by extingnishing the light wherever he passes; he is black, smoky, dark asthickest night. In the legends of France he is constantly called the sooty spirit, the Ethiopian, his body covered with black skin and hair. We feelhim to be the parent of Arihman, the god or the spirit of night, as Ormuzd is the god of day. Satan extinguishes the lamp of the deacon Paul, the wax light of St. Geneviève. (See vol. i. p. 464.)" Labour not for the meat that perisheth. " (John vi. 27.)"He that entereth by the door into the sheepfold is the shepherd."(Johu x. 1.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE PARABLES. 333the Law. Outside the gate the holy prelates stand before Christ,holding the gospels and teaching. These words are written abovethem: " Those who have entered in by the Door " (which is Christ).Before them a crowd of Christians attentively listening. Behindthe Christians, Arius and other heresiarchs torment them. Abovethem is written: " Those who entered not by the Door, but whohave climbed up some other way."The Parable of the Vine. *Christ, carrying the gospel upon His breast, and raising both Hishands in blessing, saith: " I am the Vinestock, and ye are thebranches. " The apostles are encircled by the branches of the vine,which spring from His body.tThe Parable of the Hypocrite. ‡Description. -A man standing up with a little piece of stick inhis eye. Before him stands a Pharisee with a large beam of woodin his eye; he is saying to him: "My brother, let me pull the strawout of your eye. " Christ is above them, watching the Phariseein displeasure. He says upon His scroll: " Thou hypocrite, firstcast out the beam out of thine own eye.”The Parable of the Good and the Corrupt Trees.§Description. Men standing on one side. From the mouth ofone the Holy Spirit issues, an angel falls from the mouth ofanother, a gentle flame from another, a rose and various otherprecious things from the mouths of the others. Opposite to themstand another group of men, from whose mouths fall demons,serpents, swine, thorns, and other evil things. Christ, pointing themout from a distance, says upon His scroll: " Every tree shall beknown by its fruits.""I am the Vine, ye are the branches." (John xv. 5.)This subject, as we have already stated, is painted in the little convent of Cesariani on Mount Hymettus, in the church-porch against the east wall.Tothe left of the door we have the material genealogy of Christ, his ancestry from Jesse to St. Joseph; on the right his spiritual posterity, the apostles.This subject of Christ as the vine, of which the apostles are branches and fruit, is painted upon glass in the cathedral of Troyes."Why beholdest thou the straw that is in thy brother's eye? "(Matt. vii. 3.)66 § " A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit. " (Matt. vii . 18. )334 APPENDIX II.The Parable of the Strait Gate. *Description. Mountains and caverns. Saints are seen at prayer,demons tempting them. Farther on, martyrs enduring all mannerof torment at the hands of tyrants. Christ appears above in theclouds, blessing them. He carries the Gospel open upon His breast,and says: "Strive to enter in at the strait gate."The Divine liturgy.A cupola. Below, a table on which the holy gospel is laid.Above, the Holy Spirit. Close by, the Eternal Father seated on athrone; He raises His sacred hands in blessing, and says upon ascroll: " I have engendered thee in My bosom before Lucifer. ”Christ, in the act of blessing, is at the right side of the table in apatriarch's robe. Before Him, all the ranks of angels, clad insacerdotal robes, and filled with awe, form a circle extending to theChrist takes a disc from the head of an angelFour other angels stand near; two swingincense before Christ, and two carry great candles. Others comebehind, also carrying-one a little spoon, another a lance, another asponge, another a cross, and others tapers.†left side of the table.in a deacon's dress.The Apostles receive the Body and Blood ofour Lord.Houses. A table, on which a plate is laid with bread cut up inpieces. In the middle, behind this table, the form of Christ is halfvisible, His hands stretched out. He holds the bread in the righthand, and the chalice in the left. Before Him the gospel lies open.On the right page is written: " Take, eat; this is My body." Onthe left, "Drink ye all of this, for this is My blood; " at each side theapostles, bending slightly forward, fix their gaze on Christ. Peter,foremost of the five apostles to the right, places his hand under thebread given him by Christ. John, foremost of the five apostles to

• Enter ye in at the straight gate; for wide is the gate and broad is the way," &c. (Matt. vii. 13.)

These are both the instruments of the Passion and the articles used in the service of the Mass. The Greeks have retained the memorials of the Passion in their Mass, more than we have in the Western Church. Besidesthe body and blood of the sacred Victim, they have the lance, with which they still pierce the Saviour's side as Longinus did on Calvary; the sponge,the reed, and the cross; and thus the sacred drama is less effaced in the Greek than in the Western rite.THE SPIRITS' REUNION. 835the left, with one hand on his breast, stretches out the other; hismouth approaches the edge of the chalice. Judas is behind them,and turns away; a demon enters his mouth.The Spirits' reunionHeaven, with sun, moon and stars. Christ in the midst, seated,holding a scroll, on which is written: "The Lord hath establishedme as the beginning of His ways; He hath founded me before thecenturies." The four evangelists appear at the corners in the formsof a man, an ox, a lion, and an eagle. The Holy Virgin and theHarbinger stand at each side of Christ, saluting Him with reverence.Acircle formed of the nine choirs of angels surrounds Him; thrones,cherubim, seraphim, saying: " Holy, holy, holy." The other orderscarry scrolls with inscriptions. Thus the Dominations speak ofGlory to dominions, beauty uncreate! "-Virtues: " Glory exceeding, of virtues all-powerful "—the Powers of " Glory unattainable; light of dazzling power! "-Principalities, " Glory; shininglight of wonderful principalities! Glory! the ineffable Light ofarchangels! "-Angels, " Glory, divine beauty of angels! " Heavenis encircled by the mottoes, " May every spirit praise the Lord! "" May the Lord of heaven be praised! "Praise ye the Lord ofheaven! " "Praise Him in the highest heaven! " "To you, OLord, be all praise given! ” *"Underneath, the orders of the saints are seen seated on the cloudsand holding scrolls. The holy patriarchs are before them. Adamsays, " Glory of the patriarchs; transport and joy." Moses, foremost of the prophets, says, " Glory of the prophets, perfected oflaw." Peter, foremost of the apostles, says, " Glory of the apostles;infinite praise." Chrysostom, foremost of the prelates, " Glory ofthe holy chieftains; beauty and sublimity.” George, foremost ofthe martyrs, Glory of the persecuted! strength and power."Anthony, foremost of the solitaries: " Glory of the holy hermitsand ascetics; praise ineffable! " Constantine, foremost of therighteous kings: " Glory of the orthodox; kingly strength."Catherine, foremost of the martyred women: " Glory of virgins;heavenly spouse." Euphraxia, foremost of the heavenly saints:" Glory be to Thee, eternal joy of all the lonely! "66Under the saints, mountains may be seen with trees, laden with

• A Te Deum sung in Paradise to Christ, by all nature, saints and angels.

336 APPENDIX II.fruit and flowers, and at their base all the animals of earth, wildand tame. *HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE."I was in the isle that is called Patmos, for the word of God, and I heardbehind me a great voice as of a trumpet, saying, I am Alpha and Omega;what thou seest write in a book. " (Rev. i . 9.)-- The picture. A grotto; St. John Theologos seated within, look- ing behind him; he is wrapped in ecstasy. He sees Christ seated onthe clouds, clothed with a white garment, and girt with a goldengirdle; He has in His right hand seven stars, and out of His mouthcomes a sharp two-edged sword. Seven golden lamps surroundHim, and a great radiance issues from His person.†" After this I looked, and, behold, a door was opened in heaven and aa voice said, Come up hither, and I will shew thee things which must be hereafter. And immediately I was in the spirit; and, behold, a throne was set in heaven, and round about the throne were four-and-twenty seats: ... And I saw in the right hand of Him that sat upon the throne a book sealed with seven seals." (Rev. iv. 1.)Picture [of the vision: ch. iv. 1].-Clouds. Above them theEternal Father, seated, holding a closed book, sealed with sevenseals, in His right hand. A lamb having seven horns and seven eyessustains, by two pedestals, the book held by the Eternal Father.Seven lighted candlesticks are before the throne, the sea [ofglass like unto crystal] and the tetramorphs [ evangelical symbols]

• The most complete painting of this magnificent subject is that which decorates the external porch of the great church of Ivirôn on Mount Athos,

See p. 230, supra.Scenes from the Apocalypse are very common in Western art. In the cathedral of Rheims, the right door of the great porch is filled withstatues representing the figures in the Apocalypse. Of the three hundred and forty-six figures that ornament this door within and without, two nundred and sixty-five are consecrated to this mysterious subject. The tomb of Jean de Langheac, bishop of Limoges, who died in 1541 , is sculptured with bas-reliefs representing scenes in the Apocalypse. The crypt of the cathedral of Auxerre was painted in fresco with scenes drawn from the Apocalypse, two of which only now remain. They belong to the end of the thirteenth century, and have been engraved for this work (seevol. i . p. 108, fig. 36; p. 309, fig. 81). Glass-painters love the Apocalypse.The western rose-window of the Ste. Chapelle of Paris is filled with thissubject-it is also given in a great window in the southern transept of St. Martin-ès-Vignes at Troyes.HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE. 337standing round. Four-and-twenty elders, * on either side, seated ontheir golden thrones, clothed in white raiment, and having crowns ofgold upon their heads. They hold golden vials full of odours inthe right hand, and harps in the left. A winged angel, with handsoutstretched on either side, stands below the Eternal Father, openarmed and ready to receive the prayers of the holy."And I saw when the Lamb opened one of the seals, and I heard one of the four beasts saying with a voice as it were of thunder, Come and see.And I saw, and behold a white horse: he that sat on him had a bow-and acrown was given unto him." (Chapter vi. 1, 2.)Picture.-Mountains. Men lying prone on the ground, somedead, others, living, filled with terror. Above them a rider on awhite horse: he wears a crown. He holds a bow and shoots hisarrows among men. Behind him a rider on another horse that isred. He holds a great sword. Behind him is a third rider, he ison a black horse;† he carries a pair of balances in his hand. Behindhim is Death again, mounted on a pale horse, and carrying a greatscythe. (See page 160, supra.)"And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw, under the altar, the souls of them that were slain for the Word of God." (Chapter vi. 9.)Picture. An altar. Beneath it the souls of the holy martyrsclothed in white with uplifted hands and eyes. Angels at each side in converse with them."And when he had opened the sixth seal, lo! there was a great earthquake: the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, the moon became asblood, and the stars of heaven fell into the earth, and the heavens departed as a scroll when it is rolled together." (Chapter vi. 12, 14.)Picture.-Gloomy mountains. A great multitude, some royal,others noble, others commoners, hide themselves in dens and rocksin the mountains. The sky above them like a closed parchmentroll; the sun black and the moon blood-red; the stars falling onthe ground."After these things, I saw four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, holding the four winds of the earth, that they should not blowThe four-and-twenty elders are thus sculptured on the southern porch of Chartres cathedral, on the west door of the church of St. Denis and the cathedral of Rheims, and on a glass window in St. Stephen du Mont.These figures have in their hands either a violin or some other stringed instrument, such as a harp.The words in italics were introduced by the copyist of the manuscript. ,VOL. II. Z338 APPENDIX II.on the earth nor on the sea, nor on any tree. And I saw another angel ascending from the east, having the seal of the living God." (Chapter vii. 1.)Picture. The earth and the sea. The winds at the four cornersof the earth. Four angels, armed with swords, menace the fourwinds that they should not blow: one angel subdues Boreas,another Notus, another Zephyrus, another Sanir. *east an angel rises on the clouds; he holds the sealliving God in one hand, and stretches out the otherfour angels . Below him another angel anoints the foreheads of agreat multitude.In theX of theto the"After this I beheld, and, lo, a great multitude, which no man could number, of all nations and people, and tongues, stood before the throne. "(Chapter vii. 9.)Picture.-Masses of clouds. The Eternal Father seated upon athrone in the midst; the four evangelical tetramorphs at the fourcorners of the throne. The orders of angels form circles round.The Lambopens the gospel held by the Father on His knee. Beforethe throne a great multitude clothed in white, and holding palms in their hands; the twenty-four elders beside the throne. St. Johnnear them, to whom one in the crowd shows the men clothed inwhite robes. (See vol. i. pp. 318–337. )"And when he had opened the seventh seal, there was silence in heavenabout the space of half an hour. And I saw the seven angels which stoodbefore God; and to them were given seven trumpets. Another angel came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer. Another angelsounded the trumpet." (Chapter viii. 1.)Picture. Heaven. Above, the Eternal Father clothed in white,seated on a throne. Around are seven angels with trumpets, whoprostrate themselves in adoration before Him. Before Him, anotherangel holding a golden censer, whence a smoke issues. Clouds areat His feet. Four angels lock down out of them and sound theirtrumpets. Below, another angel may be seen with one handstretched out; he holds a scroll in the other, on which is written:66 Woe, woe, woe to the inhabiters of the earth by reason of theother voices of the trumpets of the three angels which are yet tosound." On one side the blackened sun appears, on the other themoon, a third of which has turned to blood. A multitude of starsthe third of which are black, also appear. Under them a sea ofglass mingled with fire. A mountain devoured by flames is in the

• See Annales Archéologiques, vol. i . pt. ii.: Personifications of Air.

HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE. 339midst of the sea. Ships and wrecks blown down and engulfed .Beyond the sea a multitude of trees and plants consumed by fire; ariver beyond, in the midst of which a large radiant star is seen toshine. Men drink on the bank of this river, others lie prostrate indeath upon the ground."The fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star fall from heaven unto the earth, and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit. And he opened the bottomless pit, and there arose a smoke out of the pit, as the smoke of a great furnace. And there came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth." (Chapter ix.)Picture. Clouds. An angel is above them, looking downwardand sounding a trumpet; he holds a key in his hand. Below hima vast pit is seen; a thick smoke issues from this, which obscures the sky and sun. In the midst of this smoke an awful star shinesforth. Locusts come forth out of this smoke, with faces of men, andhair of women, and teeth as the teeth of lions; on their heads theyhave crowns of gold, and breastplates of iron on their breasts; theyhave tails like scorpions, and stings in their tails, and their wingsresemble bucklers. At each side of the pit men hide themselvesamongst the mountains."And the sixth angel sounded the trumpet; and I heard a voice fromthe four horns of the golden altar, which is before God , saying to the angel which had the trumpet, Loose the four angels which are bound."(Chapter ix. 13.)Picture. Heaven. Above, the Eternal Father, seated on a throne,and clothed in white raiment; a golden altar before Him. Anangel on His right sounds a trumpet and looks down. Below, mountains are seen, and four angels hewing men in pieces. In the midstof these angels, a crowd of soldiers wearing iron breastplates, red,clear, flame-like; they have iron helmets; they ride upon horseswith lions' heads and scorpions ' tails; and stings are in their tails,and out of their mouths issue fire and smoke and brimstone.Under their feet, and before them, are a crowd of men, slain; andothers take flight, looking backwards in terror."And I saw another mighty angel come down from heaven, clothed with a cloud; and a rainbow was upon his head, and his face was as it were thesun, and his feet as pillars of fire. He set his right foot upon the sea,and his left foot upon the earth; and he had in his hand a little book. "(Chapter x. 12.)Picture. The sky, the sea and the earth below. An angel,clothed like a cloud, with face resplendent as the sun in all itsz 2340 APPENDIX II.brightness. His feet as fire, the right foot resting on the sea, andthe left on land. A little book is in his hand, which he stretchesout towards heaven. St. John kneels at his side, ready to receivethe little book from his hand."And there was given me a reed like unto a rod;* and it was said unto me, Measure the temple of God, and the altar, and them that worship therein, but the court which is without the temple leave out, and measure it not, for it is given unto the Gentiles, and the holy city shall they tread under foot for forty and two months." (Chapter xi.)Picture. The temple. An altar within. John measures it witha reed. Below, a savage winged beast, carrying a crown upon hishead. Enoch and Elias are seen rising in the sky on clouds. Nearthe temple are houses falling into ruins. Dead men. Others raisetheir hands and eyes towards heaven."And the seventh angel sounded; and there were great voices in heaven, saying, The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of the Lord, and of His Christ; and he shall reign for ever and ever. Amen.”(Chapter xi. 15.)Picture. Our Lord Jesus Christ above the clouds, seated on ahigh throne. The orders of the angels form a circle round Him.The twenty-four elders bend their knees before Him, and adoreHim. Atemple stands at His right hand, in the midst of which isa golden ark. A multitude of people are below it. Lightnings andgreat hailstones fall from heaven."And there appeared a great wonder in heaven: a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelvestars." (Chapter xii. 1.)Picture. The Holy Virgin upon clouds, with a purple robe andangel's wings. Twelve stars around her crown. Rays like the sun'srays surround her from her head to her feet. The moon under herfeet. A red dragon, with seven heads and ten horns, is before her;†the dragon casts out of his mouth water as of a flood. The earthopens and swallows up the flood. Behind the dragon is a multitudeof stars. The Holy Virgin is seen below, borne by two angels on aveil. Christ in her lap; clouds innumerable surround her.

• This rod or measure is the geometrical rod or baton which in the middle ages was put in the hands of architects. It may be seen thus in

a sculpture in Rheims Cathedral. Ann. Archéol. vol. i . p. 82.† See vol. i. p. 162 , fig . 47; fig. 184, p. 137, supra; fig. 223, p. 185,supra.HOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE. 341"And I saw a beast that was like unto a leopard: his feet were as the feet of a bear; his mouth as the mouth of a lion. It had seven headsand ten horns." (Chapter xiii. 2.)Picture. The earth and sea. The beast with seven heads coming out of the sea. It is worshipped by men of power. Anothersmaller beast, with two horns, like a lamb. Fire and hail fall fromheaven."And I looked, and, lo! a Lamb stood on Mount Zion, and with Him ahundred and forty and four thousand, having His Father's name written in their foreheads. These are they which were not defiled with women;for they are virgins, and follow the Lamb whithersoever He goeth."(Chapter xiv. 1.)Picture.-A high mountain, the Lamb standing on the summit;Hewears a crown upon His head, a sceptre in one of His paws-thatis to say, a small red flag with a cross at the end. * The evangelicaltetramorphs stand at the four corners of the throne. The twentyfour elders, and a number of angels holding harps, are to the rightand left. Close by, a crowd of virgins clad in white, their hands andeyes turned towards the Lamb. Numbers of clouds below, fromthe tops of which four angels are looking down. One of themcarries the gospel open, saying: "Fear God and give glory to Him,for the hour of His judgment is come." On His right, anotherangel points to the ground with one hand, and holds a scroll in theother, on which is written: " Babylon is fallen-is fallen, that greatcity." Another angel to her left, with hand stretched out, andanother holding a scroll, with these words: " If any man worshipthe beast, and receive his mark in his forehead, or in his hand, heshall drink of the wine of the wrath of God." Under them, the cityof Babylon in ruins."And I looked, and behold a white cloud, and upon the cloud one sat like unto the Son of Man, having on His head a golden crown, and in His hand a sharp scythe." (Chapter xiv. 14.)Picture.-Clouds. Christ above, crowned and holding a scythe,with which He reaps as He passes over the earth. Another angelalso holds a sickle, and cuts the grapes, which are afterwardscrushed in a wine-press; blood flows from it instead of wine (v. 20).Above the heaven is a temple, in which an altar stands. An angelcomes forth from the gate of the temple; looking at Christ, hestretches out one hand towards Him, and carries a scroll in the

• See vol. i. p. 43, fig. 13; p. 67, fig. 23.

342 APPENDIX II.other, on which is written: " Thrust in thy sharp sickle, and gatherthe clusters of the vine of the earth, for the time is come for thee toreap." Another angel comes forth from the sanctuary. He looksat the angel who gathers in the grapes, and points him out with onehand, while holding a scroll in the other, on which he says, “ Thrustin thy sharp sickle, and gather the clusters of the vine of theearth. ""And I saw another sign in heaven, great and marvellous: seven angels having the seven plagues, for in them is filled up the wrath of God."(Chapter xv. 1.)sores.Picture. Mountains. A multitude of men: some prostrate onthe ground. Others, faces upwards, insensible and covered withChrist seated upon a throne in their midst. Abeast wingedand crowned, and a seven-headed dragon. Three unclean spiritscome out of the dragon's mouths, resembling frogs. A city close byis in ruins. The sea and waves are as blood. Euphrates, the greatriver, is dried up. The sun in the midst of the sky above strikesits great rays across the heavens. Hail falls from the sky. Thetabernacle of witness is at the top of the sky. Seven angels comeforth from it clothed in white and wearing golden girdles . Thefirst angel pours forth his vial upon the earth and upon the sky.The second pours forth his vial on the sea. The third pours forthhis vial upon the rivers. The fourth pours forth his vial on thesun. The fifth pours forth his vial on the throne of Antichrist.The sixth pours forth his vial on the Euphrates. The seventhpours forth his vial on the air."And I saw a woman sit upon a scarlet coloured beast, full of names ofblasphemy, having seven heads and ten oorns." ( Chapter xvii. 3, 9, 12.) ↓Picture. Seven tops of mountains. Above, a beast with sevenheads and ten horns. A woman is seated on it wearing a triplecrown and apparel gleaming with gold. She holds a golden cup inher right hand, which she offers to the kings. Ten kings in frontof the beast turn to gaze upon her. Behind the beast are a multitude of people and chieftains and nobles. Above the woman iswritten: " Babylon the great, the mother of the abominations ofthe earth."*

• This personification of Babylon is very often represented in Greece.

The monks of Mount Athos have childishly destroyed the images of this woman which was painted on the wall of the porch of the great church of the convent of Coutloumousi, near Kares. A fine example was to beHOW TO REPRESENT THE APOCALYPSE. 343"And after that I saw another angel come down from heaven, havinggreat power; and the earth was lightened with his glory, and he criedmightily with a strong voice. " (Chapter xviii .)Description. The earth, mountains, sea and a city; all enveloped in fire and flame rising in the air. Kings stand far off, andmerchants wail and lament: some tear their hair, others strike theirbreasts. Others raise their hands and eyes to heaven. A crowd ofother personages. The sky above. An angel descends, surroundedby a dazzling aureole. With the right hand he points out the city,while in the left he holds a scroll: " Babylon the great is fallen,is fallen! " Another angel near, upon the clouds, casts a stone like agreat millstone into the sea, holding a scroll and saying: " Thuswith violence shall that great city Babylon be thrown down, andshall be found no more at all." Above the angels other darkclouds, vomiting hail and fire on the sea and earth. Above the skythe Eternal Father seated on a throne. Near the throne two angelsholding scrolls. The angel to the right says, "Praise our God, allye His servants." He to the left continues, " All ye that fear Him.both small and great." The evangelic tetramorphs and the ordersof the angels form a circle round the throne. A great multitudeclothed in white sing, " Alleluia! Salvation and glory and honourand power unto the Lord our God, for He hath judged her who didcorrupt the earth, and He hath avenged the blood of His servants ather hand." The twenty-four elders worship Him, saying, “ Amen!Alleluia! "66"And I saw heaven opened, and behold a white horse; and he that satupon him was called Faithful and True, and his name is called the Word of God." (Chapter xix. 11, 13, 18.)Christ issues forth on Painting. The heavens are opened.clouds; He rides upon a white horse. He is clothed in a crimsonvesture and wears a crown upon His head, and out of His mouthissues a sharp sword. Above Him these words are inscribed:"Jesus Christ, the Word of God, King of kings, Lord of lords ."He is followed by armies of men, all riding upon white horses,clothed in white linen. Their helmets and their girdles are of gold,seen in the MS. destroyed in the burning of Strasburg Library, the HortusDeliciarum. Fortunately M. le Comte Auguste de Bastard has published a reproduction of this Babylon in his great work: Peintures et Ornéments des Manuscrits.344 APPENDIX II.They are armed with sharp swords. Kings and men of might, andsoldiers riding on high horses go before. They carry swords likeheralds of a victory; they fly looking backwards. Others arestretched dead upon the earth; others have been crushed beneaththeir horses, and birds of prey devour their flesh . An angelwatching these birds stands beneath the sun, and says upon ascroll: " Gather yourselves together here, that ye may eat the fleshof kings, the flesh of captains, the flesh of mighty men." Near thevanquished is hell and a river of fire. Two angels, holding thebeast with seven heads and Antichrist; whom they cast alive intothe river of fire. *"And I saw an angel come down from heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit and a great chain." (Chapter xx. 1.)Painting. -Heaven. An angel holding a key in one hand, anda demon chained in the other. The angel casts the demon intodevouring flames."And I saw a great white throne, and Him that sat on it, from whose face the earth and the heaven fled away, and there was no place found for them. And I saw the dead, small and great, stand before God; and the books were opened." (Chapter xx. 11.)Painting.-Christ seated upon a white throne; the orders ofangels encircle Him, and the rest of the picture is as that of theSecond Coming (p. 345, infra)."And I John saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband, and I heard agreat voice out of heaven, saying, Behold the tabernacle of God is withmen, and He will dwell with them, and they shall be His people, and God Himself shall be with them, and be their God. " (Chapter xxi. 2.)XPainting. The city of Jerusalem, adorned with gold and preciousstones. It has twelve gates: on the east three gates, on thenorth three gates, on the south three gates, and on the west threegates. An angel stands at each gate holding a golden ring inthe right hand and the seal of the living God in the left. St.John stands upon a high mountain and concity. Heaven is opened above, and Christ is revealed seated on athrone, whose wonderful radiance is shed abroad over the city. Allthe orders of the saints and angels, with the twenty-four elders,form a circle round the throne of Christ. One angel in the height

• See vol. i . fig. 81, p. 308.

templates theHOW TO REPRESENT THE SECOND COMING. 345of heaven points the city out to St. John, saying to him on thescroll: " Behold the tabernacle of God! " Another angel, holdinga reed, measures the city of Jerusalem. *How to represent the Second Coming ofthe Lord.Christ, clothed in white, seated on cherubim and flaming angels.He flings abroad His thunderbolts on sun, and moon, and stars.Before Him appears the symbol of His manifestation: that is to say,the cross. On His left is she, the queen-like Mother, who gaveHim birth, a Virgin evermore. Christ advances on the clouds ofheaven, to the sound of psalms, and hymns, and innumerable instruments by which the heavenly hosts celebrate His glory. He raisesHis Almighty hands in blessing; He holds the gospel open, on whichthese words may be read: " Come unto Me, ye blessed of MyFather; inherit the kingdom that I have prepared for you! " Andalso He saith: " Depart from Me, ye cursed.”Above Him are these words: " Jesus Christ, the joy and theglory of the righteous." All the saints prepare to meet Him according to the order in which, through help of divine grace, they havearisen from earth to heaven; they are all seated upon clouds.First come the choir of apostles. 2nd, the choir of our first parents3rd, the choir of patriarchs. 4th, the choir of prophets. 5th, thechoir of bishops. 6th, the choir of martyrs. 7th, the choir ofsaints. 8th, the choir of righteous kings. 9th, the choir of martyredor solitary women. All carry branches in their hands to signifytheir virtues. An angel flies in the air and sounds the last trumpet.The earth is below with its cities and wealth; then the sea, with itsships and its boats, gives up the dead it has destroyed. † The deadIn the great convent of Xeropotamou on Mount Athos the Apocalypse is painted in much detail. It occupies the entire of the external porch of the great church, and concludes with the Last Judgment. Here we feel we are in the region of Greek mythology: the dragons that have sat for the painter here belong to the land of the hydra, and tradition has transmittedthem from mythology to Christianity. So is it also with the Babylon;she is a sort of female Bacchus. This grand symbolic woman is clothed in very rich vestments; her breast is covered with gold pieces, one of which adorns her brow like the young brides in Greece at the present day.Corn-blades are woven through her hair, she holds a cup in her right hand.She advances seated on a beast, which, were it not for the seven heads springing from its neck, would be a tiger.† The Greeks in their representations of the Second Coming personify the earth and the sea. In the convent of Vatopédi on Mount Athos, theLast Judgment is painted in fresco on the western wall of the church on346 APPENDIX II.awaken either in their tombs or in the sea; they are filled withfear, and their expressions vary strongly. All are upborne onclouds; but some come before Christ, while sinners are dragged tothe place of vengeance. Farther on stand the prophets, holdingscrolls with inscriptions as follows:--Isaiah: "The Lord will come to judge."Joel: " All nations shall awaken and will come down " (iii . 2).Daniel: " And many that sleep in the dust shall awaken ” (xii. 2).The righteous and universal Judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ.*Christ on high, seated on a fiery throne. Clothed in white, Hecasts His thunderbolts upon the sun. All the mighty angels, struckwith terror, tremble at His presence. With His right hand raisedHe blesses the saints, with the left He shows the place of lamen- tation and woe. He is encircled by a great light, and above Him iswritten: " Jesus Christ, the righteous Judge. " At either side standthe Holy Virgin and the Harbinger bending in reverence before Him;and the twelve apostles are seated on twelve thrones around. Thesaints are also present; they stand to the right and hold palmbranches, signs of their power, in their hands. They are dividedinto three orders: in the first are the choir of the first parents,patriarchs and prophets; in the second the choir of bishops, martyrsand solitaires; in the third, the choir of righteous kings, holywomen or martyrs. On the left hand of Christ are all sinners castout of His presence, and condemned, along with the traitor Judas andall demons, tyrant kings, idolators, antichrists, heretics, murderers,traitors, thieves, robbers, those who refuse to give alms, usurers,misers, liars, sorcerers, drunkards, the self-indulgent and impure, andthe outside of the porch, where the same subject is seen in sculpture orthe French cathedrals. Earth is a vigorous woman richly clothed; she iscrowned with flowers, and she holds a bunch of branches laden with fruitin her right hand; in her left a serpent, whose body she squeezes. She isseated on two lions, and borne aloft by two eagles. This is evidently apersonification of strength, and the allegory is a curious reminiscence ofthe antique Cybele. The Sea is a less robust and more agile figure; shefloats along between two marine monsters who serve as her chariot, andto whom two great wheels, like those ofantique chariots, are attached . Inthe convent of St. Gregory on Mount Athos this figure forms part of theLast Judgment painted on the western wall of the principal church.

• For illustrations of this subject see vol. i. of this work, p. 256. (Ann.

Arch. i. 165, pl. 12. ) . Mortuary chapel, St. Gregory, on Mount Athos;mosaic in church of Torcello, Murano, near Venice. See also p. 121, supra.THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER. 347""the ungrateful Jews, scribes and Pharisees. All utter great criesand wailings . Some tear their beards, others rend their garments.They look towards Jesus, and the saints and the prophet Moses, who points to Christ and says upon his scroll: "The Lord will raise upa Prophet from among their brethren like unto me; unto Him ye shall hearken. " The symbol of the cross is before the throne withthe ark of the testament of the Lord, with the witnesses of the lawand the prophets, and with the gospel open between two scrolls.Upon the scroll to the right is written: " And the dead were judged every man according to their works." On that to the left is written:"And whosoever was not found written in the book of life was castinto the lake of fire." A river of fire flows beneath Christ's feet,demons cast the wicked and uncharitable into it, and torture themhorribly with divers instruments of torture, with harpoons and lances. Others drive them into the flames with pikes, othersencircle their bodies like fiery serpents, and drag them into cavernsand outer darkness, where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth,and the worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched. Hell is seenthrough rents in the rocks, where men are chained with iron in thedarkness, gnashing their teeth and consumed by the fire that cannotbe quenched, and the worm that dieth not. The rich man, who hasbeen uncharitable, looks out into the faces of those who in Abraham'sbosom rest in paradise among the blessed saints. Paradise is surrounded by a wall of crystal and pure gold, adorned with trees filledwith bright birds. To right and left stand the prophets holding scrolls thus inscribed:-Daniel: "I beheld till the thrones were cast down, and theAncient of Days did sit.” (vii. 9.)Malachi: " And the day that cometh shall burn them up. ” (iv. 1).The righteous Judith: "The Lord Almighty will take vengeance " (xvi. 17).THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER.The Conception.tHouses and gardens planted with various trees. St. Anna in thegarden at prayer. Above her is an angel blessing her. A mountain

• Deut. xviii . 15.

+ Called Annunciation to St. Anna in " Legends of the Madonna," pp. 137,143-4. Mrs. Jameson enumerates the following illustrations of this subject:Annunciation to St. Anna, Luini, in the Brera, Milan; Vision ofthe Virginby St. Anna, Cesi, Bologna.348 APPENDIX II.is seen outside the garden, where Joachim is seen at prayer. Anangel blessing him also.The Nativity of the Divine Mother. *Houses. St. Anna lying on a bed under a coverlet, her head resting on a pillow. Two attendants support her from behind, anotherstirs the air with a fan. Other women, carrying dishes, pass out bythe door. Under them are others, seated, who wash the infant in abasin. Another, again, rocks the infant in the cradle. †The Divine Mother blessed by the priests.Houses. A table furnished with food. Joachim at the tableholding the little infant, the Holy Virgin, in his arms. St. Annabehind him. Three priests, seated at the table, look at the HolyVirgin and bless her.Presentation of the Divine Mother in the temple.The temple. A staircase leading up to the porch. The prophetZacharias stands at the gate, clothed in pontifical robes. He throwshis arms open. The Holy Virgin, three years old, mounts the stepsbefore him. She holds out one hand and carries a taper in theother; Joachim and Anna, behind, point her out to a crowd ofvirgins carrying tapers, who stand near.§The temple is crowned by a magnificent cupola. The Virgin isseated beneath the centre of the dome; she takes the bread offeredto her with a benediction by the archangel Gabriel. ||Joseph leading the Divine Mother into the Holy of Holies.Within the temple. The prophet Zacharias pronounces thebenediction. Behind, other priests point out the Holy Virgin oneto another. In front, Joseph takes the Holy Virgin by the hand.Other persons stand behind.¶

• Birth of Virgin, D'Agincourt, Greco-Italian; Birth ofVirgin, Fresco,

Tadeo Gaddi, Baroncelli Chapel, Florence.† Two scenes or acts are comprised under this heading, the washing and the rocking to sleep."Now there were around the temple, according to the fifteen psalmsofdegrees, fifteen steps to go up. "- Apoc. Gosp. Nat. of Mary.§ Bas-relief, Orcagna, San Michele, Florence. Fresco, Taddeo Gaddi,Baroncelli Chapel, Florence. Painting, Carpaccio, Accademia, Venice.Gabriel thus ministering to the child Mary is carved on the stalls of Amiens Cathedral. The Virgin spinning with an angel at her side, is re- presented in Office of the Virgin: Bodleian, 1408, Oxford.Virgin and Joseph, Luini, the Brera, Milan. The Marriage of the Virgin is omitted in the Greek manual.THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER. 349Death ofthe Virgin. *A house. The Holy Virgin within lies dead upon a couch, herarms crossed upon her breast, torches and lighted tapers at eachside of the bed. Beside the bed stands an angel with a naked sword,and a Hebrew, whose hands are cut off and fastened to the bed. St.Peter incenses the feet of the Holy Virgin with a censer. At herhead stand St. Paul and St. John Theologos, who kisses her. Otherapostles and bishops stand round. Dionysius the Areopagite, Hierotheus and Timotheus holding the gospels. Women in tears. Christis above, holding in His arms the soul of the Blessed Virgin, cladin white. She is surrounded by a great light and a crowd of angels.The twelve apostles advance on clouds in the air. On the top ofthe house to the right John of Damascus holds a scroll with thesewords: " You indeed, O heavenly Virgin, merit that you should bereceived still living into heaven, tabernacle of the divine." St. Cosmas,the poet, on the left, holding a scroll with these words: " You appearto be a mortal woman, but your apostles see you truly, O immaculate Divine Mother."The Divine Mother laid in the Tomb.†Atomb. Within it the apostle Peter supports the head of theHoly Virgin; outside Paul supports her feet; John Theologosembraces her. The other apostles stand round, holding wax tapersand uttering lamentations.The Assumption ofthe Divine Mother.‡An open and empty tomb. The apostles astonished. Thomas,in their midst, shows them the Virgin's girdle which he holds.Above them in the air the Holy Virgin ascends to heaven on clouds.Thomas is again seen upon the clouds at the side of the HolyVirgin, and receives the girdle from her hands.§

• Mrs. Jameson remarks that this scene, in those examples derived

from the Greek school, is always represented with a mystical and solemn simplicity, adhering closely to the formula laid down in the Greek manuals. See sculpture of Death of the Virgin in the abbey church of Solernes.Mrs. Jameson mentions painting of this scene by Angelico, engravedin " Etruria Pittrice " ( see " Leg. of Madonna," p. 317) . Taddeo Bartoli(Siena, Pal. Publico), Parmigiano, and Fra Angelico, treated this subject.A. Orcagna, sculpture in San Michele. See Mrs. Jameson, “Leg.Madonna," pl. xxvii. Agnolo Gaddi, fresco in Chapel della Sacratissima Cintola, Prato. Taddeo Bartoli, Palazzo Publico, Siena.§ Two scenes under this heading.350 APPENDIX II.Fountain of Life.Agolden fountain. The Divine Mother in the midst with handsupraised. Christ in front of her (see vol. i. p. 486), blessing to rightand left, the gospel open on His breast at these words: " I am theliving Water." Two angels hold, each with one hand, a crown abovethe Holy Virgin's head, while carrying scrolls in the other, on whichis written: " Hail, fountain of life and purity! " " Hail, pure sourceof the Divinity! " Under the fountain is a large basin with water.At each side patriarchs, kings, queens, princes, princesses bathe in and drink of the water from cups and vases. A crowd of sick andparalysed come there also; and a priest holding a cross blessesthem. A man possessed by a devil. The baptism of a Thessalianbya captain of a vessel, who pours water over him, is also represented here. *The prophets on high. †The Holy Virgin seated on a throne, holding the infant Christ.Underneath her pedestal are these words: "Prophets have proclaimed your name from on high." The prophets stand round as follows:-The patriarch Jacob, holding a ladder. He says upon his scroll:"I beheld you in a dream as a ladder planted upon earth, andreaching to the heights of heaven."Moses holding a bush, says upon a scroll: " I have called you atree, O Divine Virgin Mother; for in a bush have I beheld a greatmystery! " +Aaron, holding a blossoming rod, says upon his scroll: "This rodhas foreshown to me, O spotless Virgin, that you have given birthto the Creator, even as a plant to a flower! "Gideon holding a fleece says upon his scroll: " O pure Virgin,this fleece has foreshown you to me; for by this fleece I have seenthe miracle of your deliverance! "David, holding an ark, says upon his scroll: " Gazing on the

• The origin and history of this incident of the Thessalian is forgotten even by the painters of Mount Athos:

The Virgin enthroned and honoured by prophets and patriarchs is illustrated at Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, Laon, and Mans Cathedrals, and also in mosaic, cath., Capua. Virgin enthroned with Isaiah and Jeremiah,Ste. Maria della Navicella, Rome.Moses was said to have seen a vision of the Virgin and Child in the the burning bush. See p. 273, supra. ·THE FEASTS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER. 351beauty of the temple, O young Virgin, I have forenamed you,O Virgin, the holy ark. "Solomon holding a bed, says upon his scroll:"I have named youthe royal couch, predicting your prodigious wonders."Isaiah, holding a ladle, says upon his scroll: " O spotless Virgin,I have foreshown you, in this lamp of burning charcoal, the nameof the kingly throne.”Jeremiah, pointing to the Divine Mother, says upon a scroll: “ Ihave seen you, O Maiden, Virgin of Israel, led forth to tribulation."Ezekiel (xliv. 2), holding a gate, says upon a scroll: " I havebeheld you, closed gate of God! by which the sole God of theuniverse hath gone forth."Daniel (ii. 34), holding a mountain, says upon a scroll: I haveforenamed thee as a spiritual mountain, whence a stone was cutout, * O spotless Virgin Mother! "Habakkuk, holding a shady mountain, says upon a scroll: “ Beingin the spirit and filled with prophetic joy, I have beheld you as amountain covered in impenetrable shade."Zachariah (iv. 2), holding a seven-branched candlestick, saysupon his scroll: " I have looked, and behold a candlestick of gold, andhis seven lamps thereon, O Spiritual Light, to enlighten the world."The Salutations.Heaven with sun and moon. The Holy Virgin above seated on athrone with the Infant Christ. The following inscription surroundsher: " Rejoice, Queen of Angels, O full of grace! " Above her amultitude of holy angels to right and left. Four of them holdscrolls; on the first is written: " Rejoice, Glory of Angels, protectressof men." On the second: " Rejoice, Temple Divine, Throne oftheLord." On the third to the left: " Rejoice, Paradise of Delight!rejoice, Tree of Life! " On the fourth: " Rejoice, Palace and Throneof the great King! ". Beneath the angels come all the orders of thesaints upon clouds, each band preceded by a leader holding a scrollcontaining his verse of the litany::--John, first of prophets, saith: " Rejoice, you that fulfilled theexpectation of the prophets! "

• Dan. ii. 34: "A stone was cut out without hands, which smote the

image upon his feet, that were of iron and clay, and brake them in piecesand the stone that smote the image became a great mountain and filled the whole earth."352 APPENDIX II.7Peter, first ofthe apostles, saith: " Rejoice, O laudable eloquenceof apostles! "Chrysostom, first of the bishops, saith: " Rejoice, glory of allpriests, reward of bishops! "George, first of martyrs, saith: " Rejoice, glory of martyrs, strengthofwarlike men! "Anthony, first of solitaries, saith: " Rejoice, famous amongsolitaries, glory of monks; religious! "Constantine, first of righteous kings, saith: " Rejoice, O Virgin,strength and diadem of kings! "Catherine, first of female martyrs, saith: " Rejoice, glory ofvirgins: their fortress and their citadel! "Euphraxia, first of female solitaries, saith: " Rejoice, consolation sweet of women who live in solitude! "The Paradise of Eden is seen above these figures, adorned bybirds of various plumage and animals, by flowers and varied shrubsand magnificent trees, and surrounded by a wall built of stonesprecious as pure gold. The patriarch Abraham stands in the midst.Around him a number of little innocent children. All the patriarchs,righteous men, with women and children, in contemplation andtransport ofjoy. The saints and the penitent thief, bearing the crosson his shoulders, are also with them.HOW TO REPRESENT THE TWENTY-FOUR STATIONS OF THE DIVINEMOTHER.The Angel appears for the first time.Houses. The Holy Virgin, sitting on a throne and spinning redsilk. Above, the sky. An angel descends upon clouds; he blessesthe Virgin with the right hand, and holds in the left a blossomingrod.tThe Holy Virgin looking. . . .‡Houses. The holy Virgin astonished. She holds a scroll andsaith: " How shall this be, seeing I know not a man? " The

• This title and those which follow are the opening words of a series of prayers in constant use among the Greeks.

None ofthe examples quoted by Mrs. Jameson in the " Legends of theMadonna " quite correspond with this subject.Cimabue. The mystery of the Annunciation and Incarnation -or Conception is represented in four different scenes in the Greek manual.THE STATIONS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER. 353archangel Gabriel, standing before her, blesses her with the righthand; in the left he holds a scroll and saith: " Rejoice, thou muchgraced; the Lord is with you! "Third Station.Houses. The archangel, standing reverentially, points with theright hand to heaven; in the left he holds a scroll and says:"Behold the handmaid of the Lord: be it unto me according to thyword."The Powerfrom on high.The Holy Virgin seated on a throne. An angel at each side liftsa great veil behind her, which stretches from the head to the feet.Above her the Holy Spirit appears, surrounded by clouds and agreat light.She who possesses God. . . .Houses. Within the holy Virgin and Elizabeth, embracing. Ata little distance Joseph and Zacharias speak together. Behindthem a little child in short dress holds a stick upon his shoulder,from which a basket hangs.* Below the house, a stable: a mule tied to it eats from a manger.Having a storm within. ..Houses. The Holy Virgin in ecstasy. Joseph before her,supported by his staff, extends his right hand towards the HolyVirgin, and looks at her with a troubled countenance.†The shepherds have heard. ...The arrangement is identical with that of the Nativity of Christ;only here the Magi are not represented. (See above.)The star, the road of God. . . .The sky. A brilliant star comes forth in the midst of a ray.Beneath are mountains. The Magi, on horseback, point out thisstar to one another."The old Italians," says Mrs. Jameson, " seldom omit this attendant.Michael Angelo, in the picture in the possession of Mr. Bromley, substitutes a maiden for the boy."See Mrs. Jameson, " Legends of the Madonna," p. 194, on this troubleand the repentance of Joseph.VOL. II. 2 A354 APPENDIX II.The children of the Chaldeans have seen.Houses. The Holy Virgin, seated on a throne, and holding the little Infant Christ in her arms. The Magi, kneeling before her,offer gifts. Joseph stands behind her. Above, a star. Outsidethe house, a youth holding the horses of the Magi by a bridle.The heralds of God. ...A city. Before the city gates, the watchman, looking outwards.At the extreme end of the city are mountains, and the Magi onhorseback. An angel guides the Magi.His splendour in Egypt.See above: The Flight into Egypt.The expectation of Simeon.The arrangement here quite the same as that for Candlemas.(See above. )He has revealed a new creation. ...Christ upon a cloud, blessing with both hands. The four cornersof the cloud, the four evangelical tetramorphs. Above, and at eachside of them are the apostles, the martyrs, the bishops, and theother orders of all the saints.They behold a wonderful birth.The sky. The Holy Virgin and Child throned on high. Below,the multitude of saints, their eyes raised to heaven.He took heed of the things here below. ... . .The sky. Christ on high, surrounded by a circle of infinite lightand the orders of angels. Above, heaven; Christ is seen blessingwith both hands. Apostles and a great multitude on either side.All the angelic host. •Christ seated on a throne, blessing. Above, heaven and theorders of the angels in wonder. They ascend and descend towardsJesus.The rhetors in various tongues. · •The Holy Virgin and Child enthroned. To her right and left areyoung men and aged, wearing hats of fur or veils upon their heads.THE STATIONS OF THE DIVINE MOTHER. 355They are all astonished. Books, both open and closed , lieground at their feet. *Christ has willed the salvation of the world. . . .upon theThe sky, with sun, moon, and stars. Two angels descend fromheaven. Below, mountains covered and beautified by trees, flowers,and houses. Christ walking on foot; the apostles following Himreverently.The protection ofvirgins. ...Houses. The Holy Virgin standing in the midst, holding theLord, a little infant, in her arms. A crowd of virgins surround her.A universal hymn. ...The sky. Christ throned and blessing. A multitude of angelssurround Him; bishops and saints stand below Him, holding openbooks.Shining lamp. · • •The Holy Virgin standing on a cloud; she carries the Lord, alittle infant, in her arms. She is surrounded by a great light, whoserays strike downwards. A dark grotto below, in which men,kneeling, raise their eyes towards the Holy Virgin.Christ willing to grant grace. ...Houses. Christ standing inside. He bears papers in His hands,covered with Hebrew characters. At the close of these papers arethe words: " The Chirograph of Adam." Youths and old menkneel at each side of Christ.Chorus ofpraise to the Son...Houses. The Holy Virgin on a throne; she holds the Lord, aninfant, in her arms. Bishops and priests are before the houses; onecarries the gospel, the other a censer. Behind them, musicianssinging; some wear hats, others great white bonnets. Deacons intheir midst, with open rolls , lead the singing. †O Mother, famed throughout the universe! ... ..The Holy Virgin seated on a high throne, a footboard beneath her

• These books are meant to figure human knowledge, which, when matured, does homage to divine wisdom symbolised in a child.

† At the present day, in Mount Athos, the deacons give the note and direct the singing.2A2356 APPENDIX II.feet with three steps. Kings, priests, bishops, and solitaries praybefore it, some standing, others kneeling. They hold scrolls withinscriptions.The character of thefaces ofthe twelve holy apostles.St. Peter an old man with a round beard; he holds an epistle, onwhich is written: " Peter, apostle of Jesus Christ."St. Paul: bald, beard grey and stubbly; he holds his twelve epistlestied together in a roll.St. John Theologos: an old man bald; large, not very thick, beard;he holds the Gospel.*St. Luke, Evangelist: young, curled hair, small beard; he ispainting the Divine Mother.St. Mark, Evangelist: grey hair, round beard; he holds the Gospel.St. Andrew an old man, frizzled hair, double-pointed beard; he holds a cross and closed scroll.St. Simon Zelotes: an old man, bald, round beard.St. James: young, beard beginning.St. Bartholomew; young, beard beginning.St. Thomas: young, beardless.St. Philip: young, beardless.All these personages hold closed scrolls.The four evangelists seated at their desks, writing.St Matthew, Evangelist, writing: "The book of the generation ofJesus Christ, the son of David, the son of," &c.St. Mark, Evangelist, writing: " The beginning of the gospel ofJesus Christ, the Son of God, as it is written," &c.St. Luke, Evangelist, writing: " Forasmuch as many have taken inhand," &c.St. John Theologos, Evangelist, seated in a grotto, in ecstasy. Heturns his head backwards towards heaven; his right hand restsIn Western art, St. John has been, from the earliest times, representedwithout a beard; in the East, on the contrary, he is bearded. The LatinChurch represents him young, as he was at the time of the Last Supper,when he leaned on the breast of Christ; the Greek Church paints him atthe time when he wrote the Apocalypse, in the island of Patmos-that isto say at a very advanced age, sixty-three years after the death of Christ,and in the year of the assassination of Domitian. St. John is represented thus in a MS. of the eleventh century in the Bibl. Nat. Paris (see vol. i.p. 269 , fig. 68) , in the gospel of Charles the Bald (Bibl. Nat. No. 323,and in another MS. (Suppl. Lat. No. 641) . In such instances we may tracea Byzantine origin.THE EXALTATION OF THE CROSS. 357upon his knee, the left , is extended towards St. Prochoros. *Prochoros is seated before St. John, who writes these words:"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was withGod ... 99Before the evangelists, the tetramorph, winged beasts, eachcarrying the gospel. They turn their gaze towards the fourevangelists in the following order: a man at the side of St. Matthew,a lion at the side of St. Mark, an ox at the side of St. Luke, aneagle at the side of St. John. Interpretation: That with thesemblance of a man signifies the Incarnation; † that with thesemblance of a lion signifies strength, royalty; that with thesemblance of an ox indicates the priesthood and sacrifices; thatwith the semblance of an eagle indicates the inspiration of theHoly Ghost. It must be remembered that St. Matthew, St. Mark,and St. Luke are represented in houses when writing, whereasSt. John is represented in a grotto with Prochoros.Here we omit the long catalogue of mere names which occupies seventy-five pages of the translation of the Byzantine Guide, as likely to be of little use to English readers: Apostles, Bishops, Deacons, Martyrs,Solitaries, Stylites, or saints who lived on columns (Simon Stilites, Simeonthe wonderful orator, Daniel Stylites, Alypius Stylites and Luke Neo- stylites); the Poets; the Righteous; the Myrrhophore or women carryingmyrrh, Mary Magdalen, Salome, Joanna, Mary, Martha, Mary sister of Cleophas, Sosane; Female Martyrs; Female Solitaries; Righteous Women.The exaltation of the holy and life-giving cross.A temple. Within, St. Macarius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, uponan ambo, holding the revered cross of Christ. The empress St.

• Mrs. Jameson does not mention Prochoros the deacon, who in Greek

art always accompanies John, and often is represented as writing under his dictation. This deacon is scarcely known in the Latin Church.† Because he begins his gospel with the human generations of Christ.Because he has set forth the royal dignity of Christ. The LatinChurch attributes the same symbols to the evangelists, and interprets them in like manner. A gospel in folio, coming from the Sainte-Chapellein Paris, to which church it had been given in 1379 by Charles V., contains these lines, summing up all the explanations given at different timesin the Middle Ages for these mysterious attributes: —"Quatuor haec Dominum signant animalia Christum;Est hom*o nascendo, vitulusque sacer moriendo,Et leo surgendo, cœlos aquilaque petendo.Nec minus hos scribas animalia et ipsa figurant."358 APPENDIX II.Helena standing belowthe ambo; with her a number of princes, anda multitude of people gazing upwards with raised hands. *THE SEVEN HOLY SYNODS.Thefirst Ecumenical Holy Synod at Nicæa, under Constantine theGreat, in the year 325, against Arius ( 318 holy fathers of theChurch).Houses. The Holy Spirit above. St. Constantine throned in themidst. The following holy bishops are seated in pontifical dress,to the right and left: Silvester of Rome, Alexander of Alexandria,Eustathius of Jerusalem, St. Paphnutius the Confessor, St. James ofNisibia, St. Paul of Neocesarea; other bishops and fathers areseated around in three ranks. A philosopher in their midst,astonished. St. Spiridon, standing before him, stretches out onehand towards him, and clasps a brick, whence fire and water issues.The fire escapes and rises, the water flows between his fingers to theground. Arius standing, also in pontifical robes. St. Nicholasstretches out his hand to blow upon it. † Heretics of the Arian sectare seated together below. St. Athanasius, a young beardlessdeacon, is seated, and writes: " I believe in one God," down to"and I believe in the Holy Ghost. "The second Holy Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople, underTheodosius the Great, in the year 381, against Macedonius ‡(with 150 fathers ofthe Church).Houses. The Holy Ghost above. The great Theodosius thronedin the midst. The following saints are to be seen seated at eachside St. Timotheus of Alexandria, Meletius of Antioch, Cyril ofJerusalem. Gregory Theologos, Patriarch of Constantinople, writes

• This subject, which is one of the most imposing in Greek painting, is not sufficiently dealt with here. It is described more fully in the first volume of this work, at pages 414-417.

St. Nicholas, an ardent defender of the Trinity, is particularly venerated by the Russians, who represent him as holding three perfectly equal balls in his hands. To cause water and fire to issue from bakedclay is the figure of the Trinity which includes a God in three persons, as the brick contains three elements in one substance. The creed of Athanasius proclaimed at this Council is devoted to the development of the dogma of the Trinity.+ Macedonius disputed the divinity of the Holy Spirit.THE SEVEN HOLY SYNODS. 359the portion of the Creed from the words, " And in the Holy Ghost,"to the end. Near them are seated other bishops and priestsconversing.The third Holy Ecumenical Synod, at Ephesus, under Theodosiusthe Younger, in the year 431, against Nestorius (200 fathersofthe Church).Houses. The Holy Ghost above. King Theodosius the Youngerin the midst. He is seated on a throne, young, and with beardcommencing. Seated at each side of him are St. Cyril of Alexandria, Juvenal of Jerusalem, and other fathers and archbishops.Before them, Nestorius, an old man in archbishop's robes; hedisputes with them. Near him are heretical sectarians, withdemons on their shoulders.The fourth Ecumenical Synod at Chalcedon, under King Marcian,in the year 451 (630 fathers of the Church), against Eutychesand Dioscuros. *Houses. The Holy Ghost above. King Marcian, an aged man,seated upon a throne. Near him, princes with fur head-dresses andcrimson hats, embroidered with gold. Seated on either side are St.Anatolius of Constantinople, Maximus of Antioch, Juvenal of Jerusalem, and the bishops Paschasinus and Lucensius, representativesof Leo, Pope of Rome, with other bishops and priests. Dioscurosin front, in pontifical robes, and Eutyches near him; they conversetogether. Devils are on the shoulders of the heretics, whom theybind in chains. (See vol. i. pp. 465, 466.)The fifth Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople, under Justinianthe Great, in the year 553 ( 151 fathers of the Church), againstOrigen.Houses. The Holy Ghost above. The king enthroned; seatedto his right and left are Vigilus, Pope of Rome, Eutychius ofConstantinople, and other priests and archbishops. In front,Origen, an old man, addresses them. A demon, seated on hisshoulder, holds his eyes shut.Eutyches and Dioscuros maintained that there was only one nature in Christ.360 APPENDIX II.The sixth Holy Ecumenical Synod at Constantinople, under Constantine Pogonatus, * in the year 680 (160 fathers of theChurch), against Honorius, Sergius and Pyrrhus. †Houses. The Holy Ghost above. The king, a grey-haired manwith forked beard, is seated on a throne. Behind him, the doryphoroi (lance-bearers), and the saints seated on each side. St.George of Constantinople, Theodore and George, representatives ofthe Pope at Rome, with other priests and bishops. The heretics speak to one another.The seventh Ecumenical Synod at Nicæa, under Constantine andIrene, in the year 787 (350 fathers of the Church), against theIconoclasts.Houses. The Holy Ghost above. King Constantine, a littlechild, and his mother Irene, seated upon thrones. Constantineholds the image of Christ in his hands, and Irene the image of theVirgin. At their sides are St. Tarasius of Constantinople, the twobishops, Peter, representative of the Pope, and other pontiffs andpriests, all seated and holding images. A bishop writes in themidst of them: " He that revereth not these holy images and thevenerated cross, let him be anathema. "The exaltation ofholy images.A temple. St. Methodius, patriarch, is outside in archbishop'srobes, and holding a cross. Behind him, other archbishops bearingimages. Before them, deacons hold the image of Christ; twoothers carry the image of the Holy Virgin, called the Conductress,whose feet are shod with gold. Behind the patriarch, queenTheodore, and king Michael his son, still a child, also carry images.Behind them, priests with censers and lamps. The ascetic saints,John, Arsakios, and Isaiah, and a crowd of hermits. Near themSaint Cassia, and with her a crowd of female religious solitaries.A vast number of others of the laity-men, women, and childrenbearing crosses and tapers.

• The bearded.

These are the Monothelites, who only admit a single will in Jesus Christ.THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 361HOW TO REPRESENT THE MIRACLES OF THEPRINCIPAL SAINTS.MIRACLES OF THE ARCHANGEL MICHAEL.Michael showing water to Hagar.A house. Abraham at the door; Hagar before him holding thechild Ishmael by the hand. She carries a leathern bottle of water,and a basket of bread upon her shoulder. Farther on, a mountain.Ishmael laid upon his back under a tree. Hagar near at hand, aswell as the archangel, who points to water upon the ground.Michael prevents Abraham sacrificing Isaac. (See p. 271, supra.)Michaelforbids the demon to enter the body of Moses. (See p. 276.)Michael appears to Joshua, son of Nun, and orders him tounfasten his shoes. (See p. 276.)Michael appears to Gideon, and strengthens him against Midian.(See p. 277.)Michael appears to Manoah, and annoucnes the birth ofSamuel.(See p. 277.)Michael appears to David, and ceases to exterminate the peoplebecause ofhis sacrifice. (See p. 279.)Michael descends to the Three Children. (See p. 285.)Michael, owingto the mediation of Habakkuk, brings nourishmentto Daniel. (See p. 286.)Michael preserves the city of Constantinople, and prevents its beingtaken by the Persians.A fortified town, spacious and beautiful. Below, tents. Acrowd of soldiers, on foot and on horseback, speak together; othersplace ladders against the walls. Michael is above upon the clouds.Agreat light surrounds him, and he holds a fiery sword.Michael prevents his church from being destroyed in an inundation.A church. Inside, Saint Archippos, an old man with a pointedbeard, is at prayer. Michael standing before him; he strikes the362 APPENDIX II.foundations of the church with a lance, and splits a stone. In thedistance, two torrents, descending from the mountains, unite beforethe church, and pass through the broken stone. Above, upon themountains, are men armed with pickaxes and other tools, who turnthe course of the torrents.The archangels Michael and Gabriel save a child from beingengulfed in the sea.The sea. In the midst, three monks in a caïque with sails. Oneof them holds the rudder, the two others have fastened a stoneround a child's neck, and throw it head-foremost into the sea.Winged archangels take up the child at either side. On the seashore a monastery and church, in the midst of which the samechild is seen asleep, with the stone round its neck. The higoumenos *of the monastery, standing before him, touches him with a ring.Behind the higoumenos, a crowd of monks are to be seen in admiration and astonishment.THE MIRACLES OF THE HARBINGER.The prophet Zacharias warned by the archangel ofthe conceptionof the Precursor.The temple and altar.a censer in his rightZacharias, standing before the altar, holdshand; he raises his eyes to heaven, andstretches out his left hand. Above the altar, Gabriel says to him:" Fear not, Zacharias, for your prayer is granted. " Outside thetemple a multitude of Jews, both men and women, at prayer.The nativity of the Harbinger.Houses. Elizabeth laid upon a mattress in the bed. A servantstands before her, fanning her; other servants, coming into thehouse, carry food to Saint Elizabeth, and offer it to her. Otherservants, at the bedside, wash the infant in a basin. Zacharias,seated, writes upon scroll: " His name will be John."Elizabeth takes John, and flies into the desert.Mountains. Elizabeth carrying the infant John in her arms;she flies, looking behind her. There is a great rock before her, splitThe higoumenos is the abbot, the director of the Greek monasteries.THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 363from top to bottom, in which she is already partly hidden; asoldier, armed with a sword, pursues her from behind. *The Harbinger preaches the baptism ofrepentance, on the shore of the Jordan.A multitude of men and women carrying little infants on theirshoulders, and in their arms. The Harbinger, standing in theirmidst, says upon a scroll: " Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is athand."The Harbinger teaches the Jews and Pharisees on the banks of the Jordan.A multitude of people; doctors and Pharisees. Near them,great trees, and an axe buried in the root of the tree. The Harbinger, showing the hatchet with one hand, and holding a scroll inthe other, saying: " O generation of vipers, who hath warnedyou? " Near the tree where the axe is laid, the words, " But nowthe axe is laid," &c. †The Harbinger baptising the people.A crowd of men, women, and children. Some are undressing;others step into the water. The Harbinger baptises a man, andsays upon his scroll: " I indeed baptise you with water; but therecometh " &c.The Harbinger points out Christ.[This picture is omitted in the manuscript; but it is known toevery one. John points out Jesus, passing in the distance, to theastonished crowd. John points with the forefinger of his righthand, saying, " Behold the Lamb of God! " John is frequentlyrepresented among us using this gesture. -Didron.]The Harbinger reproves Herod because ofHerodias, his brotherPhilip's wife.A palace. Within, King Herod, an old man, seated upon athrone; Herodias near him, also seated upon a throne. A circle of

• This rather a common subject in France. It may be seen carved in

ivory on the magnificent triptych of Poissy, now in the museum of the Louvre. This work, of Italian origin, belongs to the close of the thirteenthcentury.+ This subject is carved in the cathedral of Rheims, on the western wall, inside.364 APPENDIX II.soldiers surround them. The Harbinger, standing before Herod,shows him Herodias, saying, " It is not lawful for thee to have this woman." Two soldiers seize John.The Harbinger imprisoned.A dark prison. A soldier in front holds by one hand theHarbinger bound. With the other hand he opens a door with akey. Behind the Harbinger stand other soldiers, who hold him by force.The Harbinger beheaded. (Four scenes.)A palace. Within, a table at which Herod, with his princesand nobles, is seated. Two servants take plates from the handsof another, visible outside the window as far as his shouldersand arms. In front of the table a young girl, richly attired,dances.Near the table is a room at one side, in which Herodias in royalrobes is seated; before her, a young girl holds the Harbinger'shead in a charger.In the distance, some way from the palace, the prison, with aniron-barred window, is visible. The Harbinger, beheaded, liesstretched upon the ground outside. The executioner, holding thehead in his hands, places it upon the charger held by the youngmaiden.At a little distance the apostles Andrew and John carry thebody to the tomb. *The first invention† of the venerated head ofthe Harbinger.A house with a door. Outside the door, a little staircase; at thefoot of the stair, an open tomb, in which the head of the Harbingeris laid. A hermit with a pickaxe removes the stone that coversthe tomb; another, in front of him, holds a box.Farther on the two hermits appear again; one carries his clothesin a roll hung at the end of a crook; the second, in front of him,gives another man the Harbinger's head in the box. A town

• This subject of the entombment of John the Baptist by St. Andrew and his brother arises from a tradition peculiar to the East, and rarely represented by the Latins.

Invention, meaning discovery; Latin inveniens, to come upon or light on anything; hence to find, to discover.THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 365stands before them, bearing this inscription: " The potter receivesthe head of the Harbinger from the hands of two hermits.” *A grotto. AHarbinger's head.upon the head.The second invention.terra-cotta urn is seen within, containing theRays of light fall from the roof of the grottoA priest, carrying lamp and censer, incenses thehead. A monk, slightly bent, holds a taper with one hand in frontof him; with the other he points out the head.house behind the grotto.There is a littleBehind the grotto there is a small house. A hermit, an aged manwith long beard, is escaping, and looks behind him. Two of thelaity pursue him and beat him with sticks. This inscription isover their heads: " Eustace the Arian pursued by the orthodoxbecause he denies the truth of the miracles wrought by means ofthe sacred head of the Harbinger."The third invention of the venerated head ofthe Harbinger.A church. The venerated head, in a golden shrine, stands in themidst. A chandelier and lighted lamps before it. On each side ofthe shrine two deacons hold candelabra and tapers; a bishopincenses it with a censer. At his side a king, with an incipientbeard, remains standing respectfully.† Behind the king his governorand other nobles. On the other side are priests and two musiciansplaying the harp. A deacon, standing in the midst, conducts themusic. Another singer at the king's side. A crowd of peopleform a circle round. This inscription is above: "The veneratedhead of the Harbinger revered by the king and his people."‡

• This potter was from Emessa, in Syria. The story is as follows: "As the two monks were returning from the palace of Herod, where they had found the head of St. John the Baptist, they were joined on the road by a

native of Emessa, who had left that city because of his great poverty. He carried their packages as well as the saint's head. At night, St. John having appeared to him and having directed him, he left the monks and carried off the head to Emessa. Then, having hidden it in a cavern, andalways treating it with the greatest veneration, he prospered greatly.There it lay concealed for many generations, till a star guided Marcellus to the place where it lay." (See Légende Dorée, vol. i. p. 283.)This monarch is the Emperor Theodosius the Great, who brought thehead of St. John the Baptist from Chalcedon to Constantinople. In thereign of Pepin this head is said to have passed from Constantinople to Poitiers, where numerous miracles were wrought by it.The whole legend of the beheading of John the Baptist is given inbas-relief in the cloister of the choir of Amiens cathedral, southern side.366 APPENDIX II.THE MIRACLES OF THE APOSTLE PETER.Peter cures the man lamefrom his birth.The temple with steps. A man seated, his head covered witha veil, on the highest step at the temple gate; à wallet is hungfrom his shoulders. His hands and eyes are raised towards Peter.At his side two crutches hang against the temple wall. Peter,standing before him, blesses him with one hand; he holds a closedscroll in the other. John Theologos is behind him, young,beardless.Peter destroys Ananias and Sapphira.Houses. Peter, standing in front, one hand outstretched;Sapphira stretched dead at his feet. At a little distance twomen carry away the body of Ananias, her husband. The apostlesand a great crowd stand behind Peter,Peter restores Tabitha to life.A high house. A woman laid upon a bed at the top of thehouse. Peter, taking her by the left hand, blesses her with theright. Women, widowed and infirm, are showing him the garmentsand tunics she had given them.Peter baptisesthe centurion Cornelius and them that are with him.*The water. In the midst of this water stands Cornelius, quitenaked, grey-haired and with a long beard. Five other persons.Peter, his right hand upon the head of Cornelius. Outside thewater a crowd of men and women.Peter withdrawn by an angel from the house of Herod. †A prison. In the midst of it Peter seated between two soldierswho sleep; he has shoes upon his feet, and two chains are lyingnear him upon the ground. An angel with outstretched handstands before him.

• In the church of St. Bartholomew, at Liège, baptismal fonts of copper

may be seen, executed in the twelfth century by Lambart Patras (acelebrated jeweller of Dinant). It is a choice example of the precious works in metal so renowned in the middle ages. These fonts were exe- cuted for the church of Notre Dame des Fonts, now quite destroyed. They are shaped like a vat, or the brazen sea executed by Solomon, which was supported by twelve oxen. Scenes of baptism are represented on the sideof the vessel, such as that of Jesus by John the baptist, of the philosopher Crato by St. John the Evangelist, and of Cornelius by St. Peter.† This subject is generally called St. Peter in chains,THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 367Peter destroys Simon the magician.Houses; the temple. Two winged demons in the air. Simonthe magician stretched upon the ground, his skull broken. Peterstretches out his hand and threatens the demons. A crowd of mensurround him.The apostle Peter crucified head downwards and put to death.A cross planted in the earth. St. Peter crucified upside down,his head down, his feet upwards. A crowd of soldiers encirclehim; some nail his hands, others his feet. *THE MIRACLES OF THE APOSTLE PAUL.Paul called by the Lord on the road to Damascus,St. Paul prostrate on his face upon the ground; his hands areover his eyes. Heaven above; Christ is therein. A vivid light,composed of several rays, issues from heaven, and rests upon St.Paul's head. In the midst of these rays, we read: " Saul! Saul!why persecutest thou Me? ” Near him are four men with furhats and turbans; they stand upright and are dumb withamazement.Paul baptised by Ananias.Paul, naked, standing in the midst of the water. Ananias layshis hand upon his head; scales, like fish-scales, fall from the eyes ofPaul.Paul blinding the magician Bar-Jesus. †An archon seated upon a throne. A diadem upon his head.Before him, the magician, covering his eyes with his hands. Paul,in front of him, stretches out his hand towards the eyes of themagician. Barnabas is behind Paul. A crowd of men and womenstand round, astonished.Paul shaking off the viper into the fire that had bitten his hand.A fire of fa*ggots and brushwood. Paul standing, holding his

• Although upside down, St. Peter was crucified vertically, like Jesus Christ. St. Andrew was crucified horizontally. It was not till the

fifteenth century that St. Andrew was represented fastened vertically to a cross saltire. Before that he is shown on an ordinary cross, the crossof Jesus-but fixed sideways-on the cross-bar-horizontally.† Acts xiii. 6.368 APPENDIX II.hands open over the fire. A viper bites his finger in the middleand hangs to it. St. Luke is near him; other soldiers and menseated in a circle, warming themselves.St. Paul beheaded.St. Paul kneeling, his eyes covered with a veil. The executionerraises his sword above the head of St. Paul. Other soldiers standround. A little further on a woman, blind of one eye, looks at St.Paul. *THE MIRACLES OF ST. NICHOLAS.St. Nicholas throwing money into a house.A high house. Inside, a man asleep; his three daughters at alittle distance. St. Nicholas, young, standing under the house,holds a handkerchief full of money; he throws it through awindowinto the house.tSt. Nicholas ordained deacon.Achurch; the sanctuary and the table. ‡ The saint, young, withround beard, bends a little forward before the holy table. Anarchbishop an old man with a large beard-lays his hand uponthe saint's head, his hypogonation and the end of his hom*ophore.§The Holy Spirit is above, surrounded by rays. Two deacons, at each side, carrying three-branched candlesticks. Torches andlamps, illuminated, are outside the temple. A crowd of people.St. Nicholas ordained priest.The same composition.St. Nicholas, in a ship, restores a dead sailor to life.The sea. A vessel, in the midst of which the saint is seen at prayer. A dead sailor lies stretched before him. Other sailorsstand round astonished.

• This woman is Plantilla, Platilla or Lemohia, for she is known by all three names, disciple of St. Paul. She gave the veil to St. Paul, with which he covers his eyes before the execution. See Légende Dorée, vol. i.

p. 307.See Mrs. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, vol. ii. p. 452.i.e., the altar, which in the Greek church is a table, and in the Latin a tomb.§ The hypogonation is a little lozenge-shaped ornament, falling above the knee of the bishop and originally intended to hold his handkerchief.The hom*ophore corresponds to our stole.THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 369St. Nicholas consecrated bishop.The same as above, only there are three bishops.St. Nicholas in prison; he receives the gospel from Christ, and astole from the Mother ofGod.A prison. The saint inside. To his right, Christ holding thegospel; to his left, the Mother of God carrying a stole: they presentthese things to him.St. Nicholas delivers the innocent menfrom death.A city. Mountains outside, and three men condemned to death,kneeling, their eyes covered with a veil, and their hands tied behindtheir backs. The executioner behind them, holding a naked sword;the saint, behind him, snatches it angrily from him. Three men arenear the saint with furred hats and pelisses. Prince Eustatiushumbles himself to the earth before the saint, and repents. Behindhim a horse with gilded harness.St Nicholas appears in a dream to the Emperor Constantine and toEularius; he delivers the soldiers.Palace. Constantine the Great, asleep upon a golden bed. He iscovered to his breast with coverlets shining with gold. The saintappears to him at his head, and fills him with terror.At a little distance is another palace, and the saint in likemanner frightening the sleeping Eularius.The death of St. Nicholas.The saint laid dead upon his bed, in pontifical robes. Bishopsholding open gospels stand around him; one of them embraces thesaint. Deacons with censers, torches, and open books. A crowdof people, monks and laity. A monk, clothed in a mantle, strikesa simander, * and makes it resound.THE MIRACLES OF ST. GEORGE.St. George speaks boldly to Diocletian.A palace. The emperor Diocletian seated on a throne. Nearhim his epitrope (vice-emperor), Magnentius, seated upon a lowerthrone. Behind the emperor two soldiers with lances. Near theA kind of wooden instrument like a gong.VOL. II.2 B370 APPENDIX II.other archons and soldiers. The saint, standing before the emperor,extends his right hand towards him. Two soldiers pierce him withtwo javelins.The saint thrown into prison.A prison. In the midst, the saint laid upon his back, his feetfastened in a wooden instrument. A soldier closes this instrumentwith a key; two other soldiers lay a great stone upon the saint'sbreast.The saint placed upon a wheel.A square beam, covered with iron spikes, and surmounted by awheel. The saint fastened by his feet and hands to this wheel.Two executioners, holding cords, turn the wheel. The emperor isseated opposite upon a throne. Magnentius, before him, points outthe saint. Above the wheel, an angel sits on the cloud near thesaint, whom he comes to unbind. Outside the town, two archonsand a great number of soldiers are beheaded by executioners.The saint with his feet tied up in shoes of red-hot iron.The saint seated, his hands tied . A soldier fastens his feet in ared-hot iron shoe. Behind them, a coal fire, upon which is another shoe.The saint drinks a mortal poison.The emperor seated on a throne, as well as Magnentius. Bothraise their hands towards the saint. He, standing before them,drinks the poison from a narrow-necked terra-cotta vase. Themagician Athanasius is standing in front of him; he holds a similarvase in his left hand, while with the finger of his right hand hepoints out the saint to the emperor. Near at hand, a great crowd ofsoldiers.The saint restores the dead to life.The emperor and Magnentius seated upon thrones. The magicianAthanasius is near them, astonished. In front and at a littledistance, the saint prays before an open tomb, in which the deadrises, standing upright and full of life. Near that, a crowd inadmiration.Further on, the magician Athanasius and the restored one,beheaded by an executioner.The saint restores a peasant's ox to life.The saint, seated in a prison and blessing. Before him, outsideTHE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 371the prison, and near his master, is the revived ox. The peasant, onhis knees, turns his hands and eyes towards the saint.The beheading of St. George.The saint kneeling. Before him, the executioner, with a sword.At a little distance, Queen Alexandrina, seated on a stone; shebreathes a last sigh, and an angel receives her soul,THE MIRACLES OF ST. CATHERINE.The saint learning from her confessor.A grotto. Inside, a hermit confessor, seated on a stool; he layshis hands upon the saint. She is before him, fixed in astonishment.Her mother is near her.Christ averts His facefrom St. Catherine because she is notbaptised.Agrotto. The saint bears herself humbly before the Mother ofGod, who is holding the Christ in her arms as a little infant is held.He turns His face away so that St. Catherine may not see Him.The saint baptised by her confessor.A grotto. Within, the same hermit as above; he baptises thesaint. Near her, her mother holds a lighted taper.The saint receives a token of betrothal from Christ.A grotto. The saint standing within, her right hand extendedopen. Before her, the Holy Virgin, holding Christ, as a little child,by one hand, taking the saint's right hand with the other. TheLord puts a ring upon the little finger of her right hand; He holdsa scroll in the other hand, with these words: Behold, I take theeto-day for mine inviolable spouse.” *66The saint speaking boldly to the king.A temple. Within are idols; before these idols is an altar withanimals burning thereon. Men: some strangle oxen and sheep withcords; others carry birds; others sacrifice. The king enthroned,surrounded by his guards. The saint stands forward and addressesthem.

• The four first subjects in St. Catherine's life are not often seen in Western art. In France her life commences at the Mystic Marriage.

VOL. II. 2 B 2372 APPENDIX II.The saint disputes with fifty philosophers.A palace. The king within, seated on a throne. Fifty philosophers seated at once, some on one side and some the other. Theirheads are veiled. * The oldest of these philosophers, standing nearthe king's throne, disputes with the saint, pointing out the otherphilosophers to her. All are astonished. Some hold their beardsin their hands; some talk to one another, and point out the saint.The saintfastened to wheels.Four wheels, armed with iron blades, crossed by a single axle.The saint below, stretched upon the earth, her hands tied. Anangel, standing near, loosens her cords. Several soldiers near thewheels are dead or cut to pieces; the king on his throne is opposite.The queen, coming out of the door of a house, reproaches him. Agreat crowd of men stand round.A little farther on, the queen is again seen, beheaded by anexecutioner. A number of other soldiers beheaded by executionersbecause they believed in Jesus Christ.The beheading of St. Catherine.The saint kneeling; the executioner lifts a sword over her. Amultitude of men and women shed tears. †THE MIRACLES OF ST. ANTHONY.The saint beaten by demons.Atomb. The saint is laid in it at the bottom. Demons surroundhim , and strike him with a stick. Other demons drag off the coverof the tomb.The saint, taking refuge in the desert, finds a disc of silver and of gold upon the road.Mountains and highway. In the midst of the highway, a great

• The veil is always part of the philosopher's costume in Byzantine The philosopher is likened to a priest, and even at the present day the monks of Mount Athos wear a black veil -the veil being a sacerdotal head-dress.

art.At Athens, in a half-ruined church near the temple of Jupiter, the legend of St. Catherine is painted in six pictures. The saint is a grand form, standing, nimbed, covered with long black hair in which pearls are shining. She wears a radiated crown adorned with pearls. A cross in her right hand and wheel to the left. The legend of St. Eustace may also be seen at Athens in the church of the Great Virgin.THE MIRACLES OF THE SAINTS. 373disc of silver falls to the ground; a little further on, a great lump ofgold. The saint carries staff and knapsack upon his shoulders; hequits the highway on seeing these objects.St. Anthony tills the ground.A little vegetable garden; a grotto at the end. The saint, armedwith a pickaxe, is busy weeding his vegetables.The saint confounds the philosophers, and cures those who arepossessed by demons.The saint, standing. Three of the possessed lie on their backsbefore him; demons issue from their mouths. At the side arethree philosophers, wearing veils on their heads; they appearastonished and embarrassed.The saint led by a lion into the grotto of St. Paul.The desert. The saint walks behind a lion. At a distancebefore them the grotto of St. Paul appears across the trees and mountains.St. Anthony, havingfound St. Paul, embraces him.A grotto. Outside, St. Paul the Theban, wearing a hair matwhich covers him from his shoulders to his knees. He and St.Anthony embrace. A raven perched on the top of a tree holdsbread in his beak.tSt. Anthony burying the body of St. Paul.St. Paul stretched dead upon the ground; St. Anthony coveringhim with a winding- sheet. Close by, two lions tear up the earth with their fore-paws.Death of St. Anthony.A pit dug. Two brethren carry the saint enveloped in a shroud;one has gone down into the pit, the other is outside. Near them, anaxe and a shovel thrown on the ground. Above the saint, a crowd

• He knew the devil could transform himself into silver and gold. (See

the life of St. Anthony, written by St. Athanasius. )This subject of the meeting of Paul and Anthony is sculptured on the Ruthwell cross. See Stephens' Runic Monuments, vol. ii. pt. 1.374 APPENDIX II.of angels having tapers and censers, carrying his soul, clothed inwhite, and raising him to heaven. *HOW TO REPRESENT THE MARTYRS OF THE Year.Month of September.1. The holy brothers Evodos, Callixtus, and Hermogenes, be- headed.Description.-St. Evodos and St. Hermogenes extended on theground and beheaded; the one young, the other old. Their sisterCallixta near them; at her side the executioner with a sword.2. St. Mamas perishing, his entrails torn out.Description. Mountains, with a grotto. St. Mamas, young,beardless, laid upon his back. Above him, a soldier armed with athree-pronged fork, which he buries in the saint's body.3. The holy martyr of Anthymos, decapitated.Description.—A city. Outside the city is the saint with anincipient beard, young, clad in pontifical robes, kneeling, with hishead cut off. Above him is the executioner, holding a bloodysword. Before him, another executioner holds the head that hasbeen cut off.4. St. Babylas, with three children, beheaded.Description.-St. Babylas, in episcopal dress, an old man withlarge beard, his head cut off. Near him are three children, loweringtheir heads. Above them, the executioner, with a sword.5. The prophet Zacharias, father of the Harbinger, slain betweenthe temple and the sanctuary.Description. The temple. Inside, a cupola, beneath which is atable. The saint is in front of it, an old man with a large beard,dressed as a Jewish high-priest, his hands and eyes raised to heaven.A soldier seizes his head by the hair, and buries his sword in histhroat.6. SS. Eudoxia, Zeno, Romulus, and Macarius, beheaded.Description. -St. Eudoxia and St. Zeno, young, incipient beard,kneeling, their hands raised to heaven and their heads lying on theground in front of them. Above them an executioner, putting hissword in his sheath. At his side, St. Romulus, an old man, beheaded

• See chapter on Iconography of the Soul, p. 177, supra.

HOW TO REPRESENT THE MARTYRS. 375by another executioner. St. Macarius, a youth, kneeling; anexecutioner plunges his sword in his throat.7. St. Soson, beaten by a club.Description. The saint stretched on the earth; two soldiers strike him with stakes of wood.8. St. Severianus hung at a wall, a stone attached to his feet.Description.-A city. Two soldiers upon walls, where the saintis hung. A great stone fastened to his feet.9. St. Menodora, St. Metrodora, and St. Nymphodora perishunder the rock.Description. The saints stretched upon the ground, naked to themiddle of their bodies; veils cover their heads. Three soldiers strikethem with sticks.10. SS. Diodorus, Diomed, and Didymus, beaten to death.Description. -St. Diodorus, an old man, St. Diomed and St.Didymus, young, with incipient beards, laid on the ground, theirbodies covered with wounds; three soldiers flog them.11. St. Autonomous, flogged and stoned, perishes.Description. The saint, young, with round beard, is kneeling,his hands raised to heaven; above him are four soldiers, some withstones, others with sticks, beating the body.12. SS. Cronides, Macrobius, Leontius, Serapion, cast into thesea, perish.Description. The sea; in the midst a small ship, in which aresoldiers, who cast the saints into the sea. St. Macrobius, an oldman, is half in the boat and half outside. St. Cronides, a youthfuldeacon; the others are grey-headed.13. St. Nicetas perishes in the fire.Description -A great fire, in which is the saint, young, with an incipient beard, eyes and hands raised to heaven. Two soldiers fanthe flames.14. St. Euphemia, delivered up a prey to bears and lions, remainsunharmed and renders up his soul to God.Description.-Lions and bears; in their midst the saint upon hisknees, his hands and eyes raised to heaven.376 APPENDIX II.15. St. Sophia beheaded with her three daughters, Faith, Hope,and Charity.Description. —Mountains and houses; the saints are near them.Both stretched upon the ground with their heads cut off, the twoothers , kneeling, bow their heads. The executioner raises his swordover them. *16. SS. Trophimus and Dorymedon beheaded, St. Sabbaticusflogged to death.Description. -St. Trophimus, with incipient beard, is stretchedupon the earth beheaded. St. Dorymedon, beardless, kneels, hishands tied behind his back; the executioner cuts his throat with asword. St. Sabbaticus, stretched on his back, is covered with wounds.Two soldiers with sticks are above him; one strikes, the otherbrandishes his stick in the air.20. St. Eustatius and his family are thrown into a red-hot brazenbull.Description. -A brazen bull; with the saint, grey-haired, a roundbeard, with his son and his wife. Under the bull, two soldiers keep up a great fire.21. St. Codrates dies by the sword.Description. -St. Codrates, an old man, beard stubbly, kneeling,stretching out his hands towards the sky. The executioner, whois over him, strikes him with a sword.22. St. Phocas, beheaded.Description. The saint, an old man, with pontifical robes,stretched on the ground, his head cut; fire behind his feet. Theexecutioner looks backwards.24. St. Thecla enters a rock, which lacerates her, and perishes.Description. Mountains and a grotto; a little before the grottois a great stone split open. The saint is hidden in it, and halfThe whole legend of the Holy Wisdom, or Sophia and her three daughters, is painted on the walls of Chilandari on Mount Athos. In thecathedral of Canterbury the relics of the holy Wisdom and her daughters are to be found. (See Monasticon Anglicanum, Dodsworth and Dugdale,vol. i . p. 5.) This personification and genealogy recalls the genealogy and personification of Intelligence figured in a MS. Bible in the public library of Rheims, where the daughters of Philosophy are Physics, Logic, and Ethics. (See p. 34, supra.)HOW TO REPRESENT THE MARTYRS. 377appears again. Christ upon a cloud above; He blesses the saint withHis right hand, and with the left he shows the stone.25. St. Paul; his mother and children die in tortures.Description. -Houses and mountains. In front St. Paul, anelderly man, and his mother, very aged. The family: Savinien,young, beard round; Maximian, incipient beard; Rufus, young,beardless; Eugenius, a child. All are naked, covered with wounds,and dying. Two soldiers hold the little child, one by the head, theother by the feet, and they torture it.26. St. John Theologos dies at Ephesus, where he is buried by hisdisciples.Description. The ground and a pit. Before the pit seven of thesaint's disciples. Some hold pickaxes, others hatchets and shovels.The saint is buried in a ditch, and two other disciples cover hiseyes with a veil. *27. St. Callistratus and his companions, beheaded.Description.--A vessel; inside hang broken idols. The saints,old and young, some beheaded, others kneeling, ready for the executioner's sword. St. Callistratus is near them; he is an oldman, kneeling, his hands tied behind his back. Close to him, the executioner with his sword.28. St. Mark, Alexander, Zosimus and Alpheus die, crushed upona stone.Description. Mountains; the saints above. St. Alexander, greyhaired; St. Zosimus and Alpheus, † with incipient beards. Theyare crushed on stones, and dead. St. Mark, whose white hairdescends almost to his feet, is also crushed upon a stone. He stillbreathes. Above him the executioner with a sword.29. St. Gobdeleas, fastened by his feet to a horse; St. Dadas, cutin pieces; St. Casdoa, in a king's gardens, renders up her spirit in peace to the Lord.Description. Mountains; at the top, St. Gobdeleas, young,beardless, tied by the feet with cords to a horse, who drags him overthe rocks; St. Dadas, an old man with a large beard and very richlydressed; he is stretched upon the earth, beheaded. Soldiers with

• This is represented on a glass window in the south side aisle of Chartres cathedral .

Strange to give to a saint the name of a river.378 APPENDIX II.their swords stand round him. St. Casdoa receives tae sacramentin a garden; a priest and an angel are near her.30. St. Mardonius dies, his body covered with burning charcoal.Description. -Houses; the saint, grey-haired, with stubblybeard, is stretched upon his back on the ground in one of them. Asoldier takes charcoal with a spade, and lays it on the saint'sbreast.So far we have expounded the martyrs belonging to one month;the remaining martyrs throughout the year are represented in likemanner as described in their lives and legends. Seek in the tables(of the martyrology) for the character of face belonging to thesaints individually, as also the sayings on their scrolls.[Here follows the martyrology for the months of the year following,but, as it is nothing more than a list of names, we have thought it betterto omit this portion of the work, which occupies sixteen pages. M. Didron in a note observes, " I do not know why our Greek manuscript commences at the month of September, and why it does not in preference describe the saints of January, which begins the civil year, or still more December or April, the leading months of the religious year." The outer porch ofChilandari, on Mount Athos, is painted with the martyrdoms of the principal saints.]ALLEGORIES AND MORALITIES. *How to represent the life of the true monk.Draw a monkt embracing a cross, wearing his priestly robe,on his head a calimafki; he should be barefoot, and his feetshould rest upon the footboard of the cross, his eyes being castdown and his mouth closed . The following epigraph on the top ofthe cross near his head: " Lord, Son of God, set a seal upon mymouth, and a door upon my lips." He holds lighted wax-lights inhis hands; this epigraph is close to the wax-lights: " Let your lightso shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorifyyour Father which is in heaven." He has a lozenge- shaped scrollupon his breast, with these words: "Give me a pure heart, O God,and renew a right spirit within me." Upon his waist another scrolllike a standard, with these words: " O monk, be not deceived bythe appetites ofthe body." Below that again another scroll says:

• This title, added here by M. Didron, does not appear in the original MS.

† In French caloyer, meaning a Greek monk, of the order of St. Basil.A head-dress like an advocate's cap, worn by monks.ALLEGORIES AND MORALITIES. 379"Mortify your members here upon earth." And lower still anotherscroll saying: "Make ready your feet for the way of the gospel ofpeace." Above, on the highest portion of the cross, nail a title withthe words: " Glory not because of me, if it be not in the cross of myLord." Put seals at the other three ends of the cross. On that tothe right inscribe: " He who endures to the end shall be saved."To the left: "He that renounces not all that he hath, cannot be adisciple of Christ." Upon the seal which is below the footboardwrite: " Narrow is the way, and filled with affliction, that leadethunto life." On the right side of the cross, represent a dark cavewith a dragon hidden in its midst, and write: " All-devouring hell. "Above the dragon's mouth, a naked youth with his eyes bandaged,and holding a bow, fires an arrow at the monk. A scroll is tied tothis arrow with these words: “ Be sinful. ” Above that again:"The passion of love." Draw a crowd of serpents above the cave,and write: "Remorse." Close to hell make a demon dragging thecross with a cord, and saying: "The flesh is weak, and cannotwithstand." At the right hand of the footboard make a lance, witha cross and standard , and write above it: " I can do all thingsthrough Christ who strengtheneth me." To the left of the cross,make a tower with a gate; issuing from it a man mounted on awhite horse. This personage wears a furred hat, and garmentsglistening with gold and trimmed with fur. He holds a vase ofwine in his right hand, and in his left a lance, to the end of which asponge is attached. A scroll is attached to this lance saying:"Partake of all the world's delights." Write this inscription overthe man: "The mad world. " Place Death below him as if proceeding from him; he carries a large scythe upon his shoulders, and adial on his head; he looks at the monk. Above him the inscription: “ Death and the tomb." Below, at each side of the hands ofthe monk, make two angels holding scrolls. On that to the right iswritten: "The Lord hath sent me to your assistance. " On thatto the left: " Do well, and fear naught." Above the cross, paintheaven, with Christ holding the gospel open on His breast at thesewords: " He that will be My disciple must renounce himself, takeup his cross and follow Me." He holds a royal crown in His righthand and a crown of flowers in the left; an angel at each side belowlooks at the monk and points to Christ; they hold between themboth a great scroll with the words: " Labour for the crown ofrighteousness, and the Lord will give unto you a crown of precious380 APPENDIX II.stones. "monk."Then write this inscription: " The life of the trueThe ladder of salvation and the heavenward way.A monastery. A crowd of young and old monks outside thegate. In front a very great and high ladder, reaching to the sky.Monks are upon it, some starting to climb, others grasping the footof the ladder, in order to rise higher. Above, winged angels appearto assist them. Higher still, in heaven, the Christ. An aged monkis before Him, upon the last step of the ladder; he stretches out hishands and looks towards heaven like a priest. The Lord takes himby one hand; with the other He lays a crown of flowers on hishead, saying to him: " Come unto Me, all ye that labour and areheavy laden, and I will refresh you. " Underneath the ladder agreat crowd of winged demons seize the monks by their dress;they pull at some, but cannot cause them to fall. With others theyhave succeeded in drawing them a little way from the ladder, somewith only one hand, others with two. Finally other monks arequite withdrawn from the ladder, and demons seize them by thewaist and drag them away. The all-devouring hell is beneaththem, under the form of an enormous and terrible dragon; a monk,whose feet only are now visible, has fallen backwards into his jaw.Write this sentence: "Behold the ladder that leans upon heaven,and reflect well upon the foundations of virtue. With what speedthis fragile life is borne away! Approach the ladder and mount with courage. You have the choirs of angels as your defenders;you will surmount the snares of evil demons. Reaching the gatesof heaven, you will receive the crown from the hand of the Lord.”†How to represent the death ofa hypocrite.A monk wrapped in bedclothes; a great serpent issues from his mouth. A demon over him buries a trident in his heart.How to represent the death of the righteous.A man with an incipient beard, laid in a decent and modestmanner upon an humble bed, his eyes closed and hands crossed

• There is a fine example of this subject in a fresco painting in the

porch of the principal church of the convent of Philotheou at Mount Athos.† See Fig. 206, page 167, supra.ALLEGORIES AND MORALITIES. 381upon his breast. An angel above looks at him with joy, andreceives his soul in veneration and respectThe death ofthe sinner.An aged man, naked, laid upon a bed, half concealed by amagnificent covering, turns away his eyes in horror, moving hisfeet and throwing his arms from one side to another. A demon,above him, buries a trident in his heart; he torments him with allmanner of atrocities and tears away his soul by force.How to represent the illusive seasons ofthis life.Describe a little circle; within it put an aged man, with roundedbeard, in regal robes, and wearing a crown, seated on a throne, hishands stretched out at either side, and holding the same object asis held by the World, * who is figured above the apostles in Pentecost. Around the circle, write: " The mad, deceitful, and seductiveworld."Outside the first circle make another still larger. Between thesetwo circles, inscribe four semicircles, placed crosswise; in themidst of them represent the four seasons of the year: spring,summer, autumn and winter. At the top, spring, like this: a manseated in the midst of flowers and verdant fields; he carries a crownof flowers upon his head, and strikes a harp that he holds in hishand. To the right, represent summer in this way: a man, with ahat, holds a sickle, and reaps a field. At the bottom, representautumn thus: a man beats a tree and shakes down its flowers andfruits. To the left, represent winter thus: a man seated, wearing apelisse and cowl, warms himself before a blazing fire. ( See p. 222,supra.)Outside this second circle, describe another still larger; divide itinto twelve compartments, and put the twelve signs of the twelvemonths inside. Take care to place each sign near the season thatcorresponds with it. Thus, near spring, put the ram, the bull andthe twins; near summer, put cancer, the lion, the virgin; nearautumn, the balance, the scorpion, the archer; near winter, capricorn, aquarius, and the fish. Then arrange these signs accordingto their order, and be careful to write its name above each, as well

• The World is personified in the form of an aged man, crowned, holding

twelve rolls in his lap (p. 322).In Western art, musical instruments are very rarely given to the Seasons.382 APPENDIX II.as the names of the months, in the following manner. Above theram, write March; above the bull, April; above the twins, May;above cancer, June; above the lion, July; above the virgin,August; above the scales, September; above the scorpion, October;above sagittarius, November; above capricorn, December; aboveaquarius, January; above pisces, February.Outside the third and largest circle, make the seven ages of manin the following manner. Below, upon the right side, place a little child climbing; write before him on the circle, " child of seven years."Above this make another child more grown, and write, " child offourteen years." Higher still, draw a youth with hair upon his face,and write, " youth of twenty-one. " Above, on the top of the wheel.put another man, with incipient beard, seated on a throne, his feetupon a cushion, his hand stretched out on either side, holding asceptre in his right hand, and a purse full of money in his left; heis clad in regal robes, and wears a crown upon his head. Underhim, upon the wheel, write: " youth of twenty-eight years." Underhim to the left, make another man, with pointed beard, with head bent down, but looking up; man of forty-eight years. " Under himanother man with grey hair, laid upon his back, and write: "matureman of fifty-six years." Under him, place a bald man, withwhite beard, bowed head, and arms hanging down, and write:"aged man of seventy-five years." Then under him place a tomb, inwhich is a great dragon, holding in his jaws a man upon his back,the half of whose body only is visible. In the tomb close by isDeath, armed with a great scythe, which he buries in the throat of the old man, and mows him down.66Outside the circle write the following inscriptions, near themouths of each individual:-Near the little child: " When then, having climbed, shall Iarrive on high? "Near the child: "O Time, turn quickly, that I may reach theheights. "Near the youth: " Behold, I approach the point when I may beseated on my throne."Near the young man: "Who is a king like unto me? Who isabove me? "Near the mature man, write: " Unhappy that I am.how thou has deceived me! "O Time,Near the aged man: " Alas! alas! O Death, who can escape thee? "DISTRIBUTION OF PAINTINGS IN CHURCHES. 383Near the tomb, these words: " Death and all-consuming hell."Near the man devoured by the dragon: " Alas! who will saveme from the all -devouring hell? "Then to the right and left of the wheel put two angels under eachhalf of the seasons, and turning the wheel with cords. Above theangel to the right, inscribe: " Day; " above that to the left:" Night. " Above the wheel write this epigraph: " The senselesslife of the deceitful world."*66THIRD PART.DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS.How to paint the different elevations of the walls ofa church.[Here the Guide distributes the pictures according to the order inwhich the artist ought to execute them from top to bottom insuccession. He begins at the cupola, then proceeds to thesanctuary, and works down from the highest point of the summitof the apse, from the fifth zone, to the ground-floor. The paintingson the walls of a moderately high church are arranged in fivebands, dividing them into five storeys, reaching from the groundfloor to the vault. The cupola forms a sixth storey. A specialseries of paintings is attached to each of these elevations, and eachband is, besides, divided into three or four sections, each containingits particular subject. ]When you desire to paint the walls of a church, first draw, nearthe summit of the cupola, a circle of different colours, like a rainbowseen on clouds in rainy weather. In the centre represent Christ,blessing; He bears the Gospel on His breast. Paint this inscription:" Jesus Christ, the Almighty." (See vol. i. p. 174.)

• In the church of Sophades, a village in Thessaly on the Peneus, this subject is painted in fresco on the western wall. The wheel is set in a

great square, in the four corners of which we have the sun, the moon, dayand night. This painting has supplied the key to the figures on the great rose window of the cathedral of St. Stephen of Beauvais, now proved to bethe wheel of fortune. The same subject may be seen on the walls of the Refectory at Ivirôn on Mount Athos. It is on the southern rose window of Rheims, on the rose of the south porch of Amiens. The allegory isgiven in another form on a painted window in the church of St. Nizier at Troyes; and again, in the cathedral of Canterbury, on a painted window in the nave, the ages of human life are given.384 APPENDIX II.Around the circle place a multitude of cherubim and thrones,and write this inscription: " See now that I, even I , am He, andthere is no God with Me. I have made the earth and created manupon it. I have stretched out the heavens." (Deut. xxxii. 39;Isaiah xlv. 12.)Above the Almighty draw the orders of angels around, and in themidst of the eastern side place the holy Virgin, her hands stretchedout right and left . Above the Virgin write this inscription: Themother of God and queen of angels."66Opposite to her and at the western aide of the cupola draw theHarbinger, and underneath these figures put the prophets. Beneaththe prophets inscribe this verse in a circle round the cupola:"Establish Thy church, O Lord, formed by the reunion of thosewho hope in Thee, and whose foundations are laid in Thy holyblood." Lower down in the pendentives of the vaults, represent thefour evangelists . Between these evangelists, and at the summit ofthe archivaults of these vaults, draw the holy Veil to the east;opposite to it the holy Cup; Jesus Christ on the right hand holdingthe Gospel and saying: " I am the Vine and ye are the branches;Emmanuel, on the left hand, holding a scroll with these words:"The spirit ofthe Lord is upon Me, therefore He hath anointed Me. "99Make the stems of the vine go forth from these four subjects,*dividing at the bottom where the evangelists are placed, and rising tothe angles of the pendentives, entwining their branches around theapostles. Within the vault of the cupola, and at the top of eachof the arcades in the vault, put three prophets with scrolls containing the prophecies relating to the festivals represented below theprophets; each prophet points out with his finger to the festival hehas foretold. (See above. )†Beginning of the first and highest storey in the sanctuary.—[This topmost zone or band of paintings goes all round the church,starting from and ending with the form of the Virgin. Commencingat the north, which is always at the left hand looking towards thesanctuary, we come round to the right, thus having included all thatportion of the building allotted to the paintings of the principalgospel events. ]

• Emmanuel; Jesus the Vine; the Cup; and the Veil. These four

subjects belong to the later period of fresco-painting in Greece In the cupola of the great church of the convent of St. Luke in Livadia, A.D. 920, the subjects of the mosaics are, with a few exceptions,arranged in accordance with the directions of the Guide.DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS. 385Inside the sanctuary, at the centre of the eastern end of the vault,below the prophets, which are at the summit, draw the Virgin seated on a throne, and holding Christ as a little child. Placethis inscription above her: "The Mother of God, the Queen ofHeaven."At each side put the archangels Michael and Gabriel bendingreverently. Then to the left hand commence the representation ofthe twelve principal festivals, the Holy Passion, and the miraclesfollowing on the Resurrection; represent them below the prophets,this band going all round the church and returning to the right (orsouthern side) of the summit. Thus the first band of picturesshould be placed.Beginning of the second storey.Under this topmost band, represent the divine liturgy or Mystagogia. * (See pp. 334, 335, supra.) Finally, and commencing atthe left (the north side) , represent the divine works and miraclesof Christ, in succession, round the church up to the right (south)side of the liturgy. Thus the second band of subjects shouldterminate.In the two small hemispherical cupolas of the sanctuary, on theside of the offerings, represent Christ in episcopal robes, seatedon a cloud and giving His benediction. He holds the Gospel openand says: " I am the good shepherd ." Above Him is this inscrip- tion: "Jesus Christ, the great patriarch."In a circle round Him, represent the Cherubim and Thrones, and,underneath, a line of bishops to be selected according to your ownjudgment. Lower down represent the sacrifice of Cain and Abel(see p. 268); the sacrifice of Manoah (see p. 277). Upon the vaultof the offerings, the descent from the cross.In the cupola at the opposite side represent the Holy Virgin, withthe child Jesus in the midst of a circular aureole, with arms outstretched on both sides. Write this inscription: " The Mother ofGod, the greatest in heaven. "Underneath, a circular band of bishops, selected at will. Underthem Moses looking at the burning bush ( see p. 273); the threechildren in the furnace (see p. 285); Daniel in the den of lions(see p. 286); the hospitality of Abraham, (see p. 270) .Beyond the sanctuary, in the highest part of the first of the four

• Services for the administration of the Eucharist were specifically called liturgies. (See p. 230, supra.)

VOL. II. 2 c386 APPENDIX II.niches or little apses, * above the deacons' seats, represent the Angel ofthe great Will. He is on a cloud supported by four angels; Heholds a scroll and says: " I Myself, I come from God and Ireturn to Him, for I am not come of Myself, it is He that sent Me."Write this inscription: " Jesus Christ the Angel of the great Will. ”In the second vault represent Emmanuel upon a cloud, saying on ascroll: "The Spirit of God is upon Me; because He hath anointedMe, etc." . . . At the four ends of the cloud, represent thetetramorphs of the evangelists. In the third vault show the archangel Michael, holding a sword in his right nand, and a scroll in hisleft on which is written: " They who enter the holy and divinehouse of God with impure hearts, shall I strike with mine inexorable sword." In the fourth vault represent the Harbinger; lethim be seated on a cloud, giving his benediction with his right handand holding a cross and scroll in his left, with these words writtenthereon: " Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand."In the lower part of the first niche (under the Angel of the Will) ,represent Moses holding the tables of the law, and Aaron holding agolden vase and flowering rod. Both are clothed in archiepiscopalrobes, and they each carry a mitre. Then draw Noah, holding theark in his hand, and Daniel holding a scroll.In the second niche (beneath the form of Emmanuel) paint theprophet Samuel, holding a horn of oil and a censer; Melchisedek,holding three loaves upon a disc (plate); the prophet Zachariah,father of the Harbinger, with a censer. They also wear sacerdotalvestments. Add the righteous Job, wearing a crown upon his head,and holding a scroll with these words: " May the name of the Lordbe blessed now and evermore."In the third and fourth niches (under Michael and the Harbinger)represent the twelve apostles as they are described above.2. On the eastern side, above the two columns, represent theannunciation of the angel to the Mother of God. Behind the Virgin, the prophet-king David, holding a scroll with these words:" Hearken, O daughter, and attend with thine ear! " Behind the

• These niches in the wall of the apse are divided into two parts-the

vault, and the sides reaching to the floor. The deacons gain admissionby the southern apse. In the church of the convent of Daphne, on thesacred way from Athens to Eleusis, inscriptions placed at the entrance oftwo small side apses indicate that the northern apse is destined for thesacred vessels-the south for the utensils and robes of the officiatingministers. (See vol. i . p. 293, note.)DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS. 387angel, Isaiah points with his finger to the Holy Virgin; he saysupon a scroll: " Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, andthey shall call His name Emmanuel."On the four capitals of the columns* (supporting the centralcupola) inscribe:—Onthe first: " This house is the house that the Father hath built."On the second: " This house is that which the Son hath founded."On the third: "This house is that which the Holy Spirit hathrenewed. "On the fourth: " Holy Trinity, glory be unto Thee! "Beginning of the third band. -Within the sanctuary, underneaththe divine liturgy (the Mystagogia) represent the distribution ofthe Lord's body and blood to the apostles ( see p. 334) . To theright of this communion, turning towards the church (i.e. to thenorth of the church), represent the following subjects:The Presentation of the Holy Virgin (see p. 348) .Moses and Aaron celebrating the sacrifice in the tabernacle(see p. 275).At the left side of the communion, also turning towards thechurch (on the south side) , represent:-The ladder of Jacob (see p. 271) .The ark borne into Jerusalem (see p. 279).Outside the sanctuary, all round the temple, on the right and leftsides represent a selection of parables (see pp. 322 et seq. ); and alsothe exaltation of the cross and the triumph of images. At thewest end, above the church door, represent the death of the Motherof God and her other festivals. Thus the third band of paintingsconcludes. †Beginning of the fourth band.-Underneath the third order, andround the church and sanctuary, represent the saints in medallionsand circles. Put the bishops inside the sanctuary, and the martyrsoutside, and choose certain ecclesiastics and poets to place at thewest end.Beginning of the fifth band. -Under the fourth order, the sainted

• The inscriptions defining the offices of the Trinity call to mind this inscription on a window in the church of St. Andrew at Rheims, " Pater plantavit, Filius rigavit, sed Spiritus Sanctus fructum dedit," where the Father is seen planting a tree, the apostles watering, and the Holy Ghost causing it to bear fruit.

† In the east end Mary is alive and holding Christ. In the west shedies; living in the sunrise, she dies at sunset.2 c 2388 APPENDIX II.bishops seated round the holy table: to the right, the great St.Basil; to the left , St. Chrysostom, along with the rest of the most renowned bishops, with their scrolls and their inscriptions. Nearthe apse of offering, represent St. Peter of Alexandria, holding ascroll with these words: " Oh Saviour, who is it that thus hathrent Thy garments? " Before him, represent Christ as a littlechild, standing upon the holy table, and clothed in a torn tunic; Heblesses the saint with His right hand, and holds a scroll in the leftcontaining these words: " Peter, it is Arius the hateful one, themadman! " [who hath done this]. * Beneath the vaults, put theholy deacons . Outside, towards the singers' choir, represent theprincipal martyrs (p. 374): St. George on the right; St. Demetriuson the left, and the rest in order (see above). Then represent theholy Anargyres ( Ascetics); then St. Constantine, and St. Helen,holding up the venerated cross of the Lord.To the west, place St. Anthony on the right, and St. Euthymiuson the left; and the other holy men and poets with their scrollsand inscriptions ( see the different pages in which they are described).Inside the temple door, place the archangel Michael to the right;he holds a sword and a scroll with these words: " I am the soldierof God, and am armed with a sword. I defend, I preserve, Iprotect, I watch over all who enter into this place with awe; butthose who come with impure heart, I pitilessly smite with thissword. "On the left side, Gabriel holds a scroll, and traces these words init with a reed: " With this reed I write the inmost thoughts ofthose who enter here; I take care of the good, but I quicklydestroy the wicked. " Above the door represent Christ, under theform of a little child of three years , asleep, and lying on a carpet,with His head resting upon His hand. † The Holy Virgin standsrespectfully in front of Him. Angels, holding fans, stand round ina circle; they refresh the infant Jesus by the motion of their fans.Under Him, write a title with this inscription: " The present andmost holy church of the divine and sacred monastery of . . . .

• In the great church of the Meteores, a monastery in Thessaly, this subject is painted.

This subject of the sleep of Jesus has been already described as repre- sented in the convent of Philotheou on Mount Athos. (See vol. i. p. 342.)A lion sleeps at the child's feet, and there is an inscription taken from Gen. xlix. 9: " From the prey, my son, thou art gone up; he stooped down,he couched as a lion."DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS. 339has been painted with the concurrence, and at the expense of ...in the year .... 99How the narthex should be painted. *In such a case as that in which the narthex, you desire to decoratewith painting, is capped by two cupolas, represent the Reunion ofSpirits in one of them, after the following manner: Describe a circle,and place Christ in the middle, with the orders of the angels; and alittle lower down, upon three zones, the orders of the saints (seepreceding pages). In the other cupola, put the prophets at the top.Describe a circle for heaven. Draw the Holy Virgin with theinfant Jesus in the middle. She is upborne by angels, and theprophets are a little below her, all around (see above).Below, in the pendentives, are the poets, seated writing. At theright, where the Reunion of all the spirits is represented: —St. John Damascene, writing these words: "He who is engendered by His Father before all ages, the God-Word made flesh in thebosom of the Virgin Mary."St. Cosmas writing: " Matchless image of Him that is theseal immovable, unchangeable; Son and Word of God; the arm,the right hand, the strength of the Most High. We glorify Thee,with Thy Father and Thy Holy Spirit."St. Anatolius, writing: " Rejoice, ye heavens! Ring, ye foundations of the earth! Ye mountains, resound with joy; for beholdEmmanuel! "St. Cyprian, writing: " How wonderful art Thou, O our God!How marvellous are Thy works, and Thy ways past finding out; forThou art the wisdom of God, the perfect hypostasis, the power coinfinite and co-eternal."On the left hand, where the prophets are represented on high,paint the following personages:-St. Metrophanius writing: " The prophets have foretold, O immaculate Virgin, thine ineffable and inexplicable child- bearing,learned by us as the mystery of a triune Godhead! "St. Joseph writing: " He who hath unfolded the heavens by Hiswill alone, hath formed of you another earthly heaven, O immaculate Mother of God, and hath manifested Himself throughbeing born of you! "

• The porch-one, and constantly two, sometimes even three of which precede the church properly so- called.

390 APPENDIX II.St. Theophanius writing: " Informed by the words of the divineorators, O thou spotless one, we know thy divine child-bearing,for thou hast engendered a God made flesh!St. Andrew writing: " O inexplicable birth of an immaculateconception! "Lower upon the vaults of the lesser apses, represent a certainnumber of the martyrs of the year; as many as the space admits(see p. 374). Represent the twenty-four stations of the Mother ofGod in symmetrical arrangement (see p. 352) . Lower downtowards the east, and above the door (leading from the narthex intothe church) , represent Christ throned, with the gospel open at thesewords: " I am the Door, by Me if any man enter in, he shall besaved." At each side show the Holy Virgin and the Harbinger,bending forward in reverence.To the west place the saints of the [seven] Ecumenical Councils(see p. 358). Give the tree of Jesse (p. 208) , the sin and banishment of Adam (p. 267), and other subjects from the Old Testamentnear the right hand side of the choir, and, near the left, representthe parables and the celestial ladder. Lower down give examplesof poets and holy men according to your own judgment.How the Fountain should be painted.*In the cupola above, paint the sky, with sun, moon and stars.Outside of the circle where the sun is , make a glory with a multitude of angels. Underneath the angels, and in a circle, represent onthe first line, the incident of the Harbinger in the Jordan. On theeastern side, give the baptism of Christ, and ( see p. 301) the HolySpirit descending out of heaven at the end of a ray. These wordsrun down the middle of the ray, from top to bottom: "This is Mybeloved Son, in whom I am well pleased. " Below this, make asecond band, showing those miracles in the Old Testament whichprefigure the divine baptism:-Moses saved by the waters (see p. 273). (Ex. ii. 3.)The Egyptians swallowed up in the sea (see p. 274). (Ex.xiv. 27.)Moses sweetening the bitter waters (see p. 274). (Ex. xv. 23.)The twelve wells of water, &c. (see p. 275). (Ex. xv. 27.)

• The fountain is a building of diminutive size , opposite to the entrance,

but distinct from the church: a marble basin supplied by a natural spring, in which the people washed hands and faces before entering the It was also used for baptism; hence the origin of the baptistry. church.DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS. 391The water of strife (see p. 276) . (Ex. xvii. 7; 1 Cor. x. )The ark of the covenant crossing the Jordan (see p. 276) .(Josh. iii. 15.)The dew on Gideon's fleece (see p. 277) . (Judg. vi. 37.)Kings xviii. )( 2 Kings ii. 8. )The sacrifice of Elijah ( see p . 281 ) . ( 1Elijah crossing the Jordan ( see p. 282) .Elisha purifying the waters (see p. 282) . ( 2 Kings ii . 20, 21.)Naaman washed in the Jordan (see p. 283). (2 Kings v. )The fountain of life (see p. 350).Represent the prophets upon the capitals, and all that they haveprophesied concerning baptism. *How to paint the refectory.When you desire to adorn a refectory with paintings, first put inthe vault over the table of the higoumenos (the abbot) the MysticSupper. On the side walls, beyond the vault, put the Annunciationof the Mother of God, and, all around, the following acts of JesusChrist:-Christ eating with the publicans ( see p. 306) .The apostles rubbing the corn in their hands (see p. 307).Christ blessing the five loaves ( see p. 308).The hospitality of Martha (see p. 310) .Christ at Emmaus, and the breaking of bread ( see p. 320).Christ upon the Lake of Tiberias (see p. 321) .Christ eating the broiled fish and the honey ( see p. 320) .Also represent a selection of such of the parables as bear upon thesubject; and paint the miracles of the patron saint of the monasteryand the Fall of Lucifer. †Commencement of the second band. -Place, underneath the

• The most beautiful examples of such fountains are to be found on Mount Athos, in the convents of St. Laura and of Vatopédi . There is another at Chilandari. The fountains at Xerapotamou and St. Laura have

two zones of paintings running round the cupola; the pendentives are also painted in fresco; and at the time of M. Didron's visit to Greece, thepainter Joasaph at Esphigmenou was preparing to paint the fountain, then in process of erection, exactly in accordance with the instructions handeddown from the time of Panselinos, the twelfth- century painter at Mount Athos, in this Byzantine Guide to Painting.In the refectory of Vatopédi, the Gospel King may be seen casting into hell the unbidden guest. In the Fall of Lucifer those vices that followon gluttony are shown forth, such as luxury, idleness, and gluttony itself.392 APPENDIX II.subject of the mystic supper, the chief bishops in their pontificalvestments and with their appropriate legends.St. Basil, to the right, saying upon his scroll: " The beauty of thesoul should be preserved with great care; God will seek for it inour sobriety."St. Gregory, the theologian, saying: " Let the wise shepherd of aflock be simple, humble, merciful and sweet; since by this meansyou will grow in the Lord."St. Nicholas, saying: " There is but one sole God, the Father ofthe Word and the beginning of wisdom ."To the left, St. Chrysostom saying: " Let each man that wouldbe saved, sincerely promise to forsake those sins that have already soiled him."St. Athanasius saying: " We worship one God in trinity, andtrinity in unity."St. Cyril saying: " Those who refuse the armour of abstinence,fall into the offence of gluttony, and perish in the madness ofexcess."Outside the vault, place St. Anthony to the right, turning to thetable and saying on a scroll: " Oh! monk; may you never beseduced by fleshly appetites; obedience and abstinence overcomedemons! "St. Ephraim on the left, turning towards the table, and saying:"A silent and well-ordered table, giving glory to God, wins praisefrom the angels; but a fastidious table, with frivolous talk, isvilified by demons."Choose a number of holy men with inscriptions to place roundthe table. At the end of the refectory represent the anchorite life *(see above), and the mad life of the world † ( see p. 378–380).If the refectory be an apartment of considerable size, and in theform of a cross, then add the Apocalypse of St. John Theologos,and choose some other subject. Outside the refectory, above thedoor, represent the patron of the monastery.‡

• This subject may be seen in the refectory of St. Laura on Mount Athos.

This subject is painted in the great convent of Ivirôn on Mount Athos.The refectory is the most richly adorned portion of the monastery next to the church, the western door of which it faces. The church is entered from the west, the refectory from the east. It is a rectangularbuilding terminating with an apse, and crossed by transepts. The nave,choir, transepts and apse are furnished with marble tables. The apse is theDISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS. 393How a cruciform church with four vaults should be decorated .Whenyou wish to paint a cruciform church, put the Pantocrator*in the centre; surrounding Him, the orders of angels, the fourevangelists in the pendentives. Place, over the arches below, such ofthe patriarchs and prophets as you think fit to select. But if thechurch be a large building with five cupolas, then place the form ofthe Pantocrator in the great central cupola, as described above.For the remaining four, place in one, the angel of the Great Will;in another, Emmanuel; in the third, the Holy Virgin with theChild; in the fourth, the Harbinger. Upon the arches underneath,put the evangelists, prophets, and patriarchs. Represent theprincipal festivals symmetrically upon the walls, the Holy Passion,the miracles of the patron of the monastery, and the other subjectstreated of above.How to paint a church roofed with a barrel vault. †It may happen that you have to decorate a church with a barrelvault. Place the figure of the Pantocrator, surrounded by a circle,above in the middle of the vault. Then the Holy Virgin at theeastern summit of the temple; the Harbinger being at the western .From the Holy Virgin to Christ, and from Christ to the Harbinger, put heaven and a multitude of angels therein. To thenorth and south, at each side of heaven, put the prophets andpatriarchs. Under them, put the first line of the principal festivals;the holy Baptism, and the miracles following on the Resurrection.Represent the Queen of Heaven in the roof of the sanctuary.Underneath this first line of paintings, place the second as indicatedabove. Outside the sanctuary the evangelists and the miracles ofthe patron of the monastery. For the remainder follow the directions already given.place of honour for the abbot and his vicars, and from it the fountain is visible which stands between the refectory and the church. The refectory is intended to be the terrestrial reflection of a celestial ideal, which is thechurch, in which the bread and wine of heaven are given. Its paintings are all on a golden background.

• The Almighty.

There are two types of churches in Greece. The first is cruciform,with branches of equal length, roofed with cupolas, five in all, like St. Mark's in Venice. The second type is long, like a basilica, without cupola or cross, like that of St. Demetrius of Salonica, and most of the basilicas of Constantine at Rome.394 APPENDIX II.APPENDIX.The method by which we have learned to paint the holy images.We have learned not only from the holy fathers, but even fromthe apostles, and, I might venture to say, from Christ Himself, as hasbeen shown at the beginning of this book, how holy images shouldbe represented. Christ is painted in the human form because Hehas appeared on earth conversing with men, and He has madeHimself a mortal man, like unto us, yet without sin ( Baruch iv.) .In the same way we represent the Eternal Father as an aged man,because it is thus that Daniel hath seen Him (ch. vii.) . Werepresent the Holy Spirit as a dove, because it is thus He hath beenseen in the Jordan. We also represent the features of the Virginand of the saints, and, though we reverently honour them, we do notadore them. Thus we do not affirm such or such a representation inpainting to be veritably the Christ, or Holy Virgin or saint; butwhen we bow before an image, we mean to tender such homage tothe prototype represented in this image. When, for example, theimage we salute and embrace represents Christ, that respect we paythe figure is connected with Christ Himself, the Son of God mademan for us. We do not adore the colours and the art, but the typeof Christ-the real person of Christ-who is in the heavens; for, saithSt. Basil, the homage rendered to an image belongs to the model ofthat image. In like manner, when we regard the image of theHoly Virgin respectfully, or that of any other saint, it is the prototype we honour. If we represent them, it is to remind us of theirvirtues, their labours, and to raise our souls to their level. We dowisely therefore in representing and in honouring holy images.Anathema on all blasphemers and calumniators. *On the character of theface and body ofour Lord, as we havelearned itfrom those who have seen Him with their eyes.The body, at once human and divine, of our Saviour, is threecubits in height. The head slightly bent. Sweetness is thecharacteristic expression of the face. Fine eyebrows, meeting;beautiful eyes and finely formed nose. Complexion the colour ofwheat. Hair curled and inclining to golden; a dark beard. The

• We need hardly observe that this anathema and these reflections on the worship of images may well come from the Greek painters, who had suffered so much from iconoclasts. On the Trinity, see p. 62, supra.

INSCRIPTIONS FOR THE TRINITY. 395fingers of His pure hands, are very long and finely proportioned .His character is simple, like that of His mother, from whom He hathreceived life and the human form. *On the character ofthe physiognomy ofthe Mother of God.The most Holy Virgin is in her middle age. Many have assertedthat her height also was three cubits; her complexion the colour ofwheat; her hair and eyes are brown. Grand eyebrows and beautiful eyes; a middle-sized nose and long fingers. Clad in beautifulclothing-humble, beautiful and faultless; liking her garments to be(undyed) of their native colour, as is seen in her hom*ophore (stole)preserved in the temple dedicated to her.How to represent the hand in blessing.†When you represent the hand in blessing do not join the threefingers together; but cross the thumb by the fourth finger, so thatthe second, named the index, remaining upright, and the third beingslightly bent, they may both form the name of Jesus (IHCOYC)IC. Indeed, the second, remaining open, indicates an I (ivia) , andthe third, when curved, forms a C (sigma). The thumb is placedacross the fourth finger; the fifth is also a little bent, so as to indicatethe word (XPICTOC) , XC; for the junction of the thumb and thefourth finger forms a X (chi) , and the little finger by its curvaturesforms a C (sigma) . These two letters are the abridgment ofChristos. So, by the divine providence of the Creator, the fingersof a man's hand, whether they be long or short, are so placed that itis possible for them to figure the name of Christ.Inscriptions for the Holy Trinity.The Eternal Father-Ancient of days. (Dan. vii. 9.)The Co-eternal Son-The Word of God. (John i. 1.)The Holy Spirit-He which proceedeth from the Father. (Johnxv. 26.)The Holy Trinity—Sole God of all things.Within the cross marked upon the crowns (nimbi) of these threepersons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, write these letters, OWN ( He

• See vol. i. of this work, pp. 242, 278.

In the Cathedral of Puy, M. Aug. Aymard, Correspondant de Comite Historique des Arts et Monuments, has found, in an ancient wall- painting,the divine hand represented in this Greek form of benediction. This cathedral is vaulted, with cupolas like a Byzantine church. (See vol. i. p. 407.)396 APPENDIX II.who is); for thus it is that God spoke to Moses when He appearedto him in the burning bush (" I am that I am "). Arrange theletters thus let the omicron ( O) be on the right side of the nimbusthe omega ( W) on the top, the nu ( N) upon the left side (of thedivine head). *Inscriptionsfor the Holy Trinity where the Father and the Son arerepresented with the scrolls unfolded.On the scroll of the Father. " I have engendered Thee beforeLucifer ": Psa. cx. 3. (See p. 17, supra.)Or this. " Sit Thou at My right hand, until I make Thine enemiesThy footstool ": Psa. cx. 1 (" Sede a dextris meis: donec ponaminimicos Tuos," &c. ).On the Gospel of the Son. -John xvii. 6: " O holy Father, Ihave glorified Thee on the earth, and I have manifested Thy nameunto the men which Thou gavest Me."Or this. " I and My Father are one; I am in the Father, andthe Father in Me ": John x. 30. (See p. 80, supra.)The epithets that should be inscribed upon the images of Christ.IC. XC (Jesus Christ).-The Pantocrator. -The Giver of Life-The Saviour of the World.-The Merciful. -The Angel of theGreat Will. -The Emmanuel.When you represent the Second Coming or Last Judgment.-Therighteous Judge.When you represent Christ as bishop. -The King of Kings, thegreat Patriarch.When you represent the Crucifixion. -The King of Glory.Jesus bearing His cross. -The Lamb of God, that taketh away the sins of the world.The Holy Veil.The Holy Cup.Epithets inscribed upon images of the Mother of God.MHP.OY (Mother of God) —The Merciful. -The Guide.† --The

• Here the right and left refer to the divine Person bearing the nimbus,

and not to the spectator. For all relating to the nimbus see vol. i. of this work, pp. 148, 163; also fig. 15, p . 46.+ Or Conductress. This inscription ódnyʼnτpia may be seen on a Byzantine painting on wood of the Madonna in the treasury of St. Paul of Liège.INSCRIPTIONS ON THE GOSPEL. 397Virgin, 'H Topуournxoos. * -The Queen of Angels.- The Queen ofCreation. The Spotless Mistress.-Highest in the Heavens. - Foun--tain of Life. -Sweet Friend. -Nursing Mother.-Dread Protectress.f-Sinner's Salvation. -Consolation of the Afflicted. -Joy of All.—Guardian of the Gate of Ivirôn.- Virgin of the Grotto.-Virgin ofthe Third Hand of John Damascene. ‡Inscriptions on the Gospel of Christ, according to the differentplaces where it is represented.When held by the Pantocrator.—“ I am the Light of the World;he that followeth Me shall not walk in darkness, but shall have thelight of life." (John viii. 12.)Bythe Saviour of the World.—“ Learn of Me, for I am meek andlowly of heart; and you shall find rest unto your souls. " (Matt.xi. 29.)Bythe Giver of Life.—“ I am the living bread which came downfrom heaven; if any man eat of this bread he shall live for ever."(John vi. 21.)By the angel of the Great Will.-" I am come from God, and Ireturn to Him; for I am not come of Myself, but He . . ."By Emmanuel. " The Spirit of the Lord is upon Me; because Hehath anointed Me to preach the gospel to the poor." (Luke iv. 18;Isaiah lxi. 1.)When you represent Christ as bishop.-" I amthe Good Shepherd.The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep; but he that is anhireling and not the shepherd, whose own the sheep are not .... "(John x. 11.)When you represent Christ with the angels.-" I beheld Satan aslightning fall from heaven." (Luke x. 18.)When you represent Christ with the prophets. " He that receiveth

• M. Durand found this word untranslateable, but suggests that it may

mean the " very obedient. "Or the Formidable, as in the legend of the miracle of Theophilus, when she forces the devil to resign his contract.This title refers to a legend of St. John Damascene, the great defenderof images, whose hand was cut off by the iconoclasts, and who, approaching a picture of the Virgin, pressed the maimed stump to her lips , and his hand sprang up like a plant. The picture by which this miracle was worked was preserved at Mount Athos in the convent of Chilandari in1839. It had been brought from Jerusalem to Servia, and thence carried to Chilandari, which is filled with Servian monks.398 APPENDIX II.a prophet in My name [? in the name of a prophet] shall receive aprophet's reward." (Matt. x. 41.)99 When you represent Him with the apostles. " Behold I give untoyou power to tread on serpents and scorpions ... (Luke x. 19.)When you represent Him with the bishops.—" Ye are the light ofthe world; a city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. " (Matt.v. 14.)When you represent Him with the martyrs. " Whosoever therefore shall confess Me before men, him will I confess also before MyFather which is in heaven." (Matt. x. 32.)When you represent Him with the solitaries.-"Come unto Me,all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.Take My yoke upon you, and learn of Me, for I am meek andlowly of heart; and ye shall find rest unto your souls. ”When you represent Him with the anargyres.—“ Heal the sick,cleanse the lepers, [raise the dead, ] cast out devils; freely ye havereceived, freely give." (Matt. x. 8.)When you represent Him over a door. " I am the Door; by Meif any man enter in, he shall be saved. " (John x. 9.)When you represent Him in a cemetery. " He that believeth inme, though he were dead yet shall he live." (John xi. 25.)When you represent Him as the great pontiff.—“ Lord, Lord,look down from heaven, and behold and visit this vine and thevineyard which Thy right hand hath planted." (Ps. lxxx. 14.)Inscriptions for the scrolls carried by angels, in the picture oftheNativity called The Rose.99 Onthe scroll of St. Michael: " Bright star! Hail, peerless woman! 'On the scroll of Gabriel: " Hail, mother of the Divine! "On the scroll which they hold together: " O pure rose-peerlessflower! "Inscriptions held by the Harbinger and the Mother of God whenyou represent the Trinity.On the scroll of the Holy Virgin: " Eternal Son! word of theliving God, born of the Father, yet not divided from Him, alwaysinited to Him; you who in the fulness of time art incarnate in mybosom, spiritual seed fallen from above, judge not the sinful, buthearken to Thy mother's supplication."Onthe scroll of the Harbinger: “ And I, even I, join Thy mother'sINSCRIPTIONS FOR FESTIVALS. 399supplication, oh, my Master! with that voice that was blest inproclaiming Thy coming. Oh, Word of God! Those Thou hastredeemed in Thy precious blood, the unrighteous who hung Theeon the Cross and slew Thee, grant them grace to become reconciledanew! Oh, merciful Word, Thou who lovest all men! "On the special scroll of the Harbinger: " Repent ye, for thekingdom of heaven is at hand. "· •99 On the gospels held by archbishops and bishops: " He who enterethnot the sheepfold by the gate or rather: " Let your light soshine before men that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven."Inscriptionsfor thefestivals of the Church.The Annunciation of the Mother of God.--The nativity of Christ.-Candlemas. —Baptism of Christ.-The Transfiguration.—TheResurrection of Lazarus. -The Palm-branches. -The Crucifixion ofChrist. The Descent from the Cross. -The Tears upon the Tomb.—The Resurrection of Christ.-The Incredulity of Thomas. —TheAscension.-The Descent of the Holy Spirit.- The Death of theHoly Virgin.Always be careful to place the Crucifixion in the centre of thefestivals represented in the tops of the churches. If the edifice beone of considerable size, and you wish to introduce other subjects,select them from among the miracles and sufferings of Christ, asIwell as His acts after His Resurrection. You will find in them allthat you can desire.Inscriptions for the other feasts and holy images.The conception of the Mother of God. -The nativity of theMother of God. -The presentation of the Mother of God. -The nineorders of angels.-The reunion of all spirits. -All Saints' Day.

APPENDIX III.TEXT OF THE BIBLIA PAUPERUM.TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN.See pages 196, 199, 202.VOL. II. 2 D

APPENDIX III.TEXT OF THE BIBLIA PAUPERUM.TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN.The Annunciation.Vs. 1.-The serpent loses his power: for the Virgin bears a son.Vs. 2.—The fleece is wet with dew: the earth remaineth dry.Vs. 3.-The Virgin is saluted: though unwedded she conceives.Gen. iii. 14, 15.-It may be read in the third chapter of Genesisthat the Lord said uuto the serpent: " Prone upon the ground thoushalt go." And after, in the same place, it is said of the serpent and the woman: "She shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt ensnare herheel." Now this is fulfilled in the annunciation of the gloriousVirgin, the Blessed Mary.Isa. vii . 14.—“ Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bear a Son. ”Ezek. xliv. 2.-" This gate shall be shut, and it shall not beopened."Judg. vi. 36.-It may be read in the sixth chapter of Judgesthat Gideon prayed for a sign of victory through the fleece beingwet with dew; which figured the glorious Virgin Mary withoutsin, impregnate with the infusion of the Holy Spirit.David: Psa. cxxxiii . 3.- " The Lord shall descend like dew uponthe fleece."Jer. xxxi. 22.-" The Lord hath created a new thing in the earth:a woman shall compass a man.'99Central subject the Annunciation. On the right: the serpent,Eve, and God the Father. On the left: Gideon and his fleeceAbove: Isaiah and David. Below: Ezekiel and Jeremiah.2 D 2404 APPENDIX III.The Nativity.Vs. 1.-It glows and kindles: but the bush is not consumedby fire.Vs. 2.-This is contrary to nature: a rod bears a flower.Vs. 3.-Without pain thou bearest a son, O Virgin Mary!Ex. iii. 2.-It may be read in Exodus ( chap. iii. ) that Moses sawthe bush burning with fire , and the bush was not consumed, andheard the Lord speaking thus from the bush. This bush thatburned, and which yet did not consume, figures the blessed VirginMary, who, bearing a Son without touching the purity of her body,because a virgin, gave birth and remained uncorrupted.Dan. ii. 34, 35.- " A stone, rugged, was cut out, without hands,from the mountain. "Hab. iii. 2.—“ () Lord, I have heard Thy speech, and was afraid. ”Num. xvii. 8.-It may be read, in the book of Numbers, that inone night the rod of Aaron brought forth buds and blossoms,whereby is figured the Virgin Mary, who miraculously broughtforth the ever-blessed Jesus Christ.Isa. ix. 6.-" Unto us a Child is born, unto us a Son is given."Micah v. 2.—“ Thou, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, shalt nothe least among the princes of Judah."Adoration ofthe Magi.Vs. 1.-The multitude here typify the nations longing to bejoined to Christ.Vs. 2.-This typifies the Gentiles, to whom the coming of Christ was known.Vs. 3.-Christ is adored; gold, frankincense, and myrrh are laidbefore Him.2 Sam. iii . 10.-It may be read in the second book of Kings(chap ili . ) that Abner, chief captain of the armies of Saul, came toDavid in Jerusalem, offering to subdue all the people of Israel tohim which then followed the house of Saul. Which thing prefigures the coming of the Magi to Christ, who adored, offering mysticgifts.David: Ps. lxxii. 10.-" The kings of Tharsis and the islesbringing gifts. "Isa. ii . 2.-" And all nations shall flow unto Him, and many peopleshall go up unto the Lord's house."BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 4051 Kings x. 1.- It may be read in the first book of Kingsthat the Queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon, and cameinto Jerusalem with great gifts, in adoration for him; which queenwas a Gentile; which will typify the Gentiles who came from afarto worship with gifts.Isa. lx. 14.—" And they shall worship Thy footsteps. " *Num. xxiv. 17-" There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a rodshall arise out of the root of Israel."The PurificationVs. 1.—Here the first-born is presented, that he may be redeemed.Vs. 2.-Samuel prefigures Thee, O Christ, when Thou wastpresented.Vs. 3.-The Virgin receives back Christ from Simeon.Lev. xii. 6.-It may be read in the twelfth chapter of Leviticusthat every woman, when the days of her purifying are fulfilled,shall present (after the birth of her first-born) a lamb; and if she benot able (in her poverty) to bring a lamb, then she shall bring twoturtle-doves or two young pigeons , and this for her sin-offering; andshe shall be clean: which the glorious Virgin fulfilled , although notrequiring to be cleansed .David xi. 4.-" The Lord is in His holy temple."Zech. ii. 10.-" Lo, I come, and I will dwell in the midst of thee,saith the Lord."1 Sam. i.-We read in the first book of Samuel (chap. i . ) thatHannah, the mother of Samuel, offered him to the priest Eli in thetemple: which offering prefigures the offering of the Lord made toSimeon in the temple.Mal. iii. 1.-" Andthe Lord whom ye seek shall suddenly come toHis holy temple. "Zeph. iii. 15.-" The King of Israel, the Lord, is in the midst of thee."Theflight into Egypt.Vs. 1.-Jacob fled from his father's roof through fear of hisbrother.Vs. 2.-Daniel escaped from the snares of Saul by Michal's aid.Vs. 3.-The child Christ fled from the cruel wrath of Herod."They shall bow themselves down at the soles of Thy feet. " (Authorised Version. )406 APPENDIX III.Gen. xxvii. 42, 43.—It may be read in Genesis (chap. xxvii. ) thatwhen Rebecca, mother of Esau and Jacob, heard what would intime come to pass, and that Jacob would be killed, she herself senther son Jacob from his own land. Which thing prefigures well theflight of Christ into Egypt, whom Herod sought to destroy after Hisbirth .Isa. xix. 1.-" Behold, the Lord shall come into Egypt, and theidols of Egypt shall be moved at His presence."Jer. xii. 7.-"I have forsaken mine house, and I have left mineheritage. "1 Sam. xix. 12.-We read in the first book of Samuel that whenking Saul sent messengers to seek David and to kill him, that thewife of David, by name Michal, let him down through a windowwith a rope, and he thus escaped from his pursuers. In this viewthe same king Saul prefigures Herod, who sought Christ to destroyhim, when Joseph led him with Mary into Egypt, and so theyescaped from the hands of the pursuers.Ps. lv. 7.-—Lo! then would I wander afar off; I would lodge inthe wilderness.Hosea v. 6.-" They shall go to seek the Lord, and shall not findHim."The Holy Family in Egypt.Vs. 1.-By Moses the sacred image of the calf was destroyed.Vs. 2.-The ark is made the cause of the sudden ruin of Dagon.Vs. 3.-The idols fell swiftly when Christ was present.We read in the thirty-first and thirty-third chapters of Exodusthat when Moses had come to the foot of Mount Sinai, he aloneascended the mountain to receive the law; and when he had donethis, and was descending, he saw the molten calf which Aaron hadmade of gold. Moses himself, having thrown away the tables,destroyed the calf, and broke it up: which well figured the idolsfalling in a heap when Christ entered Egypt.Hosea x. 2.-"He shall break down [their altars]."Zech. xiii. 2.-" I will cut off the names of the idols out of theearth. "Weread in the first book of Samuel (chap. v. ) that the Philistineshad placed the ark of the Lord, that they had taken in war, nearDagon, their god. Those who entered the temple in the morningBIBLIA PAUPERUM. 407found Dagon lying on the ground, and both his hands broken off:which figure was truly fulfilled when the Blessed Virgin came withChrist, her child, into Egypt; then the idols of Egypt fell in aheap; and it figures the Virgin, who, with Christ, enters the state oftrial, into which infidels, through error, have collapsed.Nahum i. 14.—“ Out of the house of thy gods will I cut off thegraven image and the molten image."Zeph. ii. 11.-" The Lord will famish all the gods ofthe earth."Murder of the Innocents.Vs. 1.-Saul for David: so the anointed of the Lord were overthrown and slain.Vs. 2.-Our child being taken off by stealth, the royal seed wasgiven.Vs. 3.-These children, instead of Christ, are taken away fromthe world.We read in the first book of Samuel (chap. xxii. ) that King Saulcaused all the priests of the Lord in Nob to be slain, because theyhad received the fugitive David, and had given him the holy bread.Saul figures Herod, for David typifies Christ, and the priests thechildren whom Herod, in their innocence, caused to be slain onaccount of Christ.David: Psa. lxx. 10.—“ Avenge, O Lord, the blood of Thypriests! "Jer. xxxi. 15.-" A voice is heard in Rama-lamentation."2 Kings xi. 1.—We read in the second book of Kings (chap. iv. )that Athaliah the queen, seeing her son dead, caused to be slain allthe sons ofthe king, lest they should reign instead of her offspring;but from her the sister of the king withdrew his younger son, whoafterwards was made king. The cruel queen figures Herod, whoordered the children to be slain on account of Christ, whereas thechild, withdrawn from death, figures Christ furtively taken away from the massacre of King Herod.Prov. xxviii. 15.—" As a roaring lion and a hungry bear, so isthe wicked ruler over the poor people."Hosea viii. 4.-" Kings have reigned, and not by me." *

• In the Biblia Pauperum this verse is rendered " Cristi regnaverunt et non ex me."

408 APPENDIX III.Returnfrom Egypt.Vs. 1.-When Saul was dead, David returned to his country.Vs. 2.-Jacob fears his brother, [but] longs to see his father.Vs. 3.—Jesus, who had withdrawn to Egypt, returns to the holyplaces.We read in the second book of Samuel (chap. ii. ) that on thedeath of king Saul, David consulted the Lord, who answered himthat he should return to the land of Judah. Now David signifiesChrist, who on the death of Herod returned to the land of Judah,for thus the Gospel testifies, saying, “ The angel of the Lord said:Arise, and take the young Child and His mother,” &c.David: Psa. cvi. 4.—“ O visit me with Thy salvation."Hosea xi. 1; Matt. ii. 15.-" Out of Egypt have I called mySon."We read in Gen. xxxi. 17-that Jacob, returning into his owncountry, from which he had fled on account of the fury of hisbrother Esau, sent before him his sheep and his oxen, his camelsand his asses, and he himself followed, with his wives and children.Jacob, who had fled from his brother, signifies Christ, who fled fromKing Herod, whom Esau signifies; but, on Herod's death, Christreturned from the land of Judah.Hosea. " Egypt, weep not, for the Lord hath grieved for thee! ” *Zech. i. 16.-" I am returned to Jerusalem with mercies."John baptising Christ.Vs. 1.—Their foes are drowned; they walk through the path ofthe sea.Vs. 2.—The river is crossed, and the land of honey reached.Vs. 3.—While he is baptising, Christ sanctifies baptism.We read in the fourteenth chapter of Exodus (v. 23), thatPharaoh, when he was pursuing the children of Israel with chariotsand horsem*n, entered the Red Sea after the children of Israel, andthe Lord closed the waters upon them, and thus liberated his peoplefrom the hand of those who were following. Likewise, throughthe water of baptism, sanctified by Christ, He has freed Christianmen from sin.Isa. xii. 3.-" Therefore with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation. "

• This verse has not been identified with any passage in Hosea.

BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 409Ezek. xxxvi. 25.-"Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you."We read in the thirteenth chapter of the book of Numbers thatthe messengers who were sent to explore the Land of Promise, whenthey returned, brought a cluster of grapes on a staff; and whenthey had crossed the Jordan, they brought it as a proof of thefruitfulness of the land: which signifies that, if we wish to enterthe heavenly kingdom, we must first pass through the waters ofbaptism.Ps. lxviii. 26.-"Bless ye God in the congregations, even theLord from the fountain of Israel."Zech. xiii. 1.-" In that day there shall be a fountain opened to the house of David. "Temptation of Christ.Vs. 1.—In his desire for lentils, he shamefully loses his honour(birthright).Vs. 2.-The serpent conquered Adam so that he should eat of the forbidden fruit.Vs. 3.-Satan tempted Christ that he might overcome Him.Gen. xxv. 29-34. -We read in the twenty-fifth chapter ofGenesis that Esau, after he had sold his birthright for the pottagewhich Jacob had sod—that is, he lost the honour due to the firstborn, and the blessing of the father: so the devil deceived our firstparents by gluttony and pride, saying, " Ye shall be as gods,knowing good from evil."Ps. xxxv. 16.-" They mocked me, and gnashed upon me withtheir teeth."2 Sam. vii. 9.-" I have cut off all thine enemies out of thy sight."Gen. iii.-We read in the third chapter of Genesis that Adam andEve were deceived by the serpent, who tempted them throughtheir appetites, because the devil, like an instrument, seducesby deceiving: which well figured the temptation which the devillaid before Christ when he tempted Christ, saying, " If Thou be theSon of God, command these stones that they be made bread," whichtemptation involved appetite.Isa. xxix. 16.-" Surely your turning things upside down shallbe esteemed as the potter's clay? ” *

• Perverse thoughts, like clay against a brick. This cogitation of yours is perverse, as if the clay should contrive against the brick.

410 APPENDIX III.Job xvi. 9, 10.-" They have gathered themselves togetheragainst me. Mine enemy hath beheld me with terrifying eyes."The raising of Lazarus.Vs. 1.-The widow's son was restored to life by Elijah.Vs. 2.-By Thy gifts, O God, Elisha gave him life.Vs. 3.-By Thee, O Christ, Lazarus became restored to life.We read in the third [first] book of Kings (chap. xvii. ) that theprophet Elias bore the dead child up to the top of a mountain,praying, and saying, " I beseech that the soul of the child may return; " and so it was done, and he restored the child alive to hismother: which well figured the raising of Lazarus, whom the Lordraised from the dead and restored to his sisters, Mary Magdaleneand Martha.Deut. xxxii. 39.-" I will kill and make alive; I will smite andwill heal."Job xiv. 14.-" If a man dies, shall he live again? ”We read in the third book of Kings (chap xvii. ) that the prophetElisha saw the child of the widow with whom he used to lodge,dead, and prostrated himself upon the child, and the flesh of thechild became warm, and the child revived. Elisha figures Christ,but the child who rose from the dead represents Lazarus, whom Herestored to life in the face of the Jews.Ps. xxxiii. 19.—“ Lord, Thou hast delivered my soul from death.”1 Samuel ii. 6.-" The Lord killeth and maketh alive. "The Transfiguration.Vs. 1.-Abraham contemplates three, but only worships one.Vs. 2.-In that sight the glory of Christ is revealed to theGentiles.Vs. 3.-Lo, the three disciples behold the Son of God glorified! "We read in the eighteenth of Genesis that Abraham saw threeyouths, or angels, who had come to his dwelling. He saw three, andhe worships one; the three angels signified the Trinity of personsi.e. as regards the man who adored one whom he understands tosignify the unity of the essence. Thus Christ, in His transfiguration,reveals Himself the true God, one in essence, triple in person.David (Ps. xlv. 2).—" Beautiful in form beyond the sons of men."BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 411Mal. iv. 2.-" But unto you that fear My name shall the Sun ofrighteousness arise."In the third chapter of Daniel, we read that Nebuchadnezzar,king of Babylon, sent three youths into a fiery furnace; andwhen he came to the furnace that he might look at them in thefire, he saw with them a fourth, like the Son of God: the threeyouths signify the Trinity of persons; the fourth reveals theunity of essence of Christ in His transfiguration, and reveals Himtruly one in essence, triple in person.Isaiah lx. 1.-" Jerusalem! Thy light is come, and the glory ofthe Lord is risen upon thee."Habakkuk iii. 4.—“ And His brightness shall be as the light; Heshall have horns coming out of His hands, or bright beams out ofHis side."Mary Magdalene at thefeet of Christ.Vs. 1.-Nathan, by his word moving the heart of the king,corrects his wicked deeds.Vs. 2.-She (Miriam), made leprous, by penance is made cleanagain.Vs. 3.-So, the fount of goodness absolves this woman from hersins!2 Sam. xii. -We read in the second book of Kings [Samuel](chap. xii.) that Nathan the prophet had been sent to David toreprove him; but David himself, the king, led by penitence,obtained mercy from God. David, in his penitence, typified MaryMagdalene in her penitence, who won the pardon of all her sins.Ezek. xviii. 22.—“ All his transgressions that he hath committed,they shall not be mentioned unto him."Zech. i. 3.-" Turn thee unto Me (saith the Lord of Hosts), andI will turn unto you."We read in Numbers xii. that Miriam, the sister of Moses andAaron, became leprous for her sin, and was healed from heruncleanness by Moses. Moses is a type of Christ, who cleansedMary Magdalene from all the uncleanness of her sins, as Himselftestifies in St. Luke, saying, " Thy sins are forgiven thee."Ps. li . 17.-" A broken and a contrite heart, O Lord, Thou wiltnot despise."2 Sam. vii. 22.-" For there is none like Thee, neither is thereany God besides Thee. "412 APPENDIX III.Christ's entry into Jerusalem.Vs. 1.-As David, who overthrew his foes, is praised in song.Vs. 2. -The glory of Elisha typifies Thy glory, Thou Son of God.Vs. 3.-The song of the good Hebrews is raised in Thy praise,O Christ!1 Sam. xvii. 51 , xviii. 6.—We read in the first book of Kings[Samuel] that when David smote Goliath, he cut off his head andbrought it in his own hand. When coming from the Philistines,the women came rejoicing, and received him into Jerusalem withgreat glory. David thus typifies Christ, whom the children of theHebrews received into Jerusalem, shouting with loud voice, anduttering blessings on Him who came in the name of the Lord.Ps. cxlix. 2.-" Let the children of Zion rejoice in their King."Zech. ix. 9.-" Behold, thy King cometh unto thee, meek, just,and having salvation. "We read in the second book of Kings (i . 15) that when Elishawould return into his city, there met him sons of the prophets,receiving him with great glory and honour, and praising him.Elisha signifies Christ, who, coming into Jerusalem, the sons of theHebrews received with great glory and honour.Cant. iii. 11.—“ Go forth, O ye daughters of Zion, and beholdyour King! "Zech. ix. 9.-" He Himself, meek, and riding on an ass, and a colt,the foal of an ass."Christ driving the money- changers out of the Temple.Vs. 1.-He (Daniel) orders the temple to be cleansed and a feastproclaimed.Vs. 2.- Maccabæus sets himself to purify Thy sacred places,O God!Vs. 3.-Christ drives out those who bought and sold in thetemple.Esdras iv. 17.- The king Darius gave orders to Esdras, thescribe, to go to Jerusalem and himself to cleanse the temple. KingDarius signifies Christ, who drove out from the temple buyers andsellers. Thus he cleansed the temple of the Lord from unlawfulpractices, giving by this to understand that the temple of the Lordis a house of prayer, and not a place of merchandise.BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 413Hosea ix. 15.-" I will cast all out of My house. "Amos v. 10.-" They held in hatred Him who hastened in atthe gate."1 Macc. iv. 41-57. -We read in the fourth chapter of the first bookof Maccabees that Judas Maccabæus ordered the Jews to cleanseand sanctify the temple because it had been polluted against thelaw. Maccabæus himself signifies Christ, who, having made ascourge of small cords, cast out . . . and forced them out, saying,"Make not the house of My Father a house of merchandise."Psalm lxix. 9.-" The zeal of Thine house hath eaten me up. "Zechariah xiv. 21.—“ There was no longer any merchant in thehouse of the Lord."Judas Iscariot betrays Christ.1Vs. 1.-The band of brothers wickedly conspire against the boyJoseph.Vs. 2.-The accursed son (Absalom) conspires against his father's fortune.Vs. 3.-So these men plotted together the death of ChristWe read in the thirty-seventh chapter of Genesis that thebrothers of Joseph said to their father Jacob that a very evil beast had devoured his son. This they did, fraudulently conspiringtowards the death of their brother. Joseph fraudulently sold by hisbrother signifies Christ, without fault, fraudulently sold by Judasinto death.Gen. xlix. 6.-" O my soul, come not thou into their secret! "Prov. xxi. 30.-" There is no wisdom nor understanding norcounsel against the Lord. "We read in the Second Book of Kings (ch. xv. ) that Absalom, theson of David, stood at the entry of the gate of the city of Jerusalem, and spoke to the people coming in, saying, " Who will make mejudge? " and the hearts of the men who were conspiring with himagainst his father inclined to constitute him king instead of David,and afterwards they pursued his father, whom he intended tokill. This Absalom signifies Judas the traitor, who conspired withthe Jews towards the death of Christ.Ps. xxxi. 13.-"They took counsel together against me to takeaway my life."Jer. xi. 19.-" They devised devices against me. "414 APPENDIX III.Judas receiving the thirty pieces ofsilver.Vs. 1.-That boy (Joseph) who was sold typifies Thee, O Christ.Vs. 2.-Whatever is done against Joseph applies to Christ.Vs. 3.-Judas, thou who sellest Christ, wendest thy way to hell.We read in the thirty-seventh chapter of Genesis that thebrothers of Joseph sold him to the Ishmaelites for thirty pieces ofsilver. This Joseph, a just man, was sold by his brothers, thoughinnocent, and is a type of Christ, who, though innocent, was sold byJudas (who sold Christ Himself to the Jews) for thirty pieces of silver; and these are the thirty pence for which Joseph was sold,one of which is worth ten ordinary pence.David Ps. cix. 8.-" Let his days be few, and let another takehis bishopric."Hag. i. 6.—" He that earneth wages, earneth wages to put it intoa bag with holes."We read in the thirty-ninth chapter of Genesis that when theIshmaelites who had bought Joseph came into their own countrywith Joseph, they sold him in Egypt to the captain of the king'sguard, whose name was Potiphar: this boy Joseph is a type ofChrist, who was sold by the impious Judas.Prov. xvi. 30.-" He shutteth his eyes to devise froward things."Zech. xi. 12.-" So they weighed for My price thirty pieces ofsilver. "The Last Supper.Vs. 1.-They mark the sacred things of Christ which Melchizedek gave to them.Vs. 2. He holds himself in His hands; the food partakes ofitself.Vs. 3.-The King sits at supper, surrounded by a company oftwelve.We read in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis that when Abrahamreturned from the slaughter of his enemies, bringing with himmuch spoil which he had wrested from his enemies, then Melchizedek, the high priest of God, brought him bread and wine.Melchizedek is a type of Christ, who at supper gave to His disciplesbread and wine-that is, His body and blood-to eat and drink.Ps. lxxviii. 25.-" Man did eat angels' food. "BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 415Isa. lv. 2.-" Hearken, ye that hear me, and eat ye that which isgood. "We read in the sixteenth chapter of Exodus that the Lordcommanded Moses to tell the people each of them to gather of themanna from heaven enough for himself for the day. Now thismanna from heaven which the Lord gave the Israelites is a type ofthe holy bread, to wit, of His most sacred body, which He Himselfgave to His disciples when He said, " Take of this, all . . . " &c.Prov. ix. 5.-" Come, eat of my bread, and drink of the winewhich I have mingled."Wisdom vi. 20.—" Thou didst send them from heaven bread prepared without their labour."Christ leaving His disciples in Gethsemane.Vs. 1.-They leave Michaiah, the prophet, who do not believehim.Vs. 2.-They do not believe Elisha when he prophesies to thepeople.Vs. 3.-Jesus passes through Gethsemane, and then says farewellto His disciples.We read in the first book of Kings and twenty-second chapter thatthe king of Samaria and king Jehoshaphat, being prepared for war,consulted four hundred false prophets, and that a lying spirit spakein the mouth of all those prophets speaking peace: " Go in peace. "Micaiah, a true prophet of the Lord, prophesied that the kingshould not return in peace, which came to pass. So the kingcommanded that there should be given him the bread of affliction.This Michaiah is a type of Christ, who for His truth was given thebread of affliction -to wit, His suffering even to death.Micah ii. 10.-" Arise ye, and depart, for this is not your rest."Jonah iv. 3.-" It is better for me to die than to live."We read in the sixth chapter of the second book of Kings that,so great was the famine in Samaria, that a woman boiled her sonand ate him; the king wished to kill Elisha, the prophet of theLord; but Elisha said , " To-morrow a measure of fine flour shall besold for a shekel. " The king would not believe as the prophet hadspoken; wherefore Elisha said, " Thou shall see it, but shall not eatthereof. " On the day after the king was trodden to death in thegate of Samaria by those who brought the fine flour. This Elisha416 APPENDIX III.is a type of Christ, who spake truth to the Jews which theybelieved not; and they killed the good and innocent Jesus.Baruch iv. 25.—“ Oh, children, suffer patiently the wrath that iscome upon you from God! "Tobias xii. 20.-" For I go up to Him that sent me."Christ in the Garden of Olives.Vs. 1.-The hope given to the wise is taken away from thefoolish virgins.Vs. 2.-The old serpent fell, driven backward from his throne.Vs. 3.—Thus they who would seize Christ fell back to theground.Matt. xxv. 2, 3.—We read in the twenty-fifth chapter of St.Matthew that those foolish virgins who had no oil with theirlamps found the door-to wit, the gate of eternal salvation—shutupon them. These virgins mean the Jews, who fell back whenasked by the Lord on the Mount of Olives, " Whom seek ye? "That is, they fell back into foolishness and hardness of heart, andare therefore already in hell for that they believed not.Lamentations ii. 16.—“ So we have found it; this is the day thatwe looked for."Jer. xiv. 3.—" They returned with their vessels empty."We read in the Apocalypse (twelfth chapter) and in Isaiah(fourteenth chapter) that Lucifer fell by his pride from heaven, withall his angels. These proud devils signify the Jews, who feared tolose their habitation and their land, and therefore killed the lowlygood Jesus, and crucified Him, and themselves fell into the pitwhich they had made—to wit, into a living hell, as it is written inthe psalm.Isa. liii. 2, 3.-" There is no beauty that we should desire Him.""He is despised and rejected of men."Baruch vi. 27.- " For if they fall to the ground at any time, theycannot rise up again of themselves."Judas betraying Christ with a kiss.Vs. 1.-Joab speaks kindly to him [ Abner] , but kills him basely.Vs. 2.-Tryphon prepares treacherous arms underneath hissmooth words.Vs. 3.-Through peace, O Christ, that traitor betrays Thee tothese men!BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 417We read in the second book of Samuel, and third chapter, thatJoab, the captain of King David's guard , came in guile to Abner totalk with him, and, while speaking to him with crafty sweetness,pierced him with a sword. Joab, who spoke deceitfully to Abner,is a type of Judas, who with guilt kissed Christ, and gave Himover to the impious Jews to be crucified.Ps. xli. 9.-" Yea, mine own familiar friend in whom I trusted. "Isa. iii . 11.-" Woe to the wicked man: an evil retribution shallbe given unto his hand."We read in the first book of the Maccabees, and twelfth chapter,that Tryphon came to the men of Judah and Israel to speak withthem craftily and capture them. This Tryphon is a type of Judasthe traitor, who came with guile to Christ and kissed Him deceitfully, and so gave Him over to the impious Jews to be killed .Prov. xvii. 20.-" He that hath a perverse tongue falleth intomischief. "Jer. ix. 8.—" With his mouth he speaketh peace to his friend. "Pilate washing his hands.Vs. 1. So the fierce multitude dared to condemn Jesus withoutcause.Vs. 2. The fierce woman would fain slay the prophet, so the wicked condemn Christ.Vs. 3.-This cruel race would do Daniel to death.We read in the nineteenth chapter of the first book of Kingsthat Queen Jezebel , when she had slain the prophets of the Lord,would then have slain the prophet Elijah. This wicked queen is atype of the Jews, who meant cruelly to slay the true Elijah—thatis Christ-through envy, because by His preaching He showed them their wickedness.Isa. v. 20.-" Woe unto them that call evil good and good evil."Job xxxvi. 17.- -“ Thou hast fulfilled the judgment of the wicked."We read in Daniel (sixth chapter) that the wicked people ofBabylon came to king Nebuchadnezzar and said, " Deliver unto us Daniel," who was innocent. This people is a type of the Jews,who cried out eagerly again and again to Pilate: " Crucify Him,crucify Him; " and again: " If thou let Him go thou art not Cæsar'sfriend." And that king signifies Pilate, who, fearing the Jews,handed over to them the innocent Christ.VOL. II. 2 E418 APPENDIX III.Ps. i. 5.-" It is not good to take part in the counsel of the ungodly. "*Amos v.justice. "7.---"Who turn judgment to wormwood, and (leave off)Christ crowned with thorns.Vs. 1.—As Ham profaned his father when he saw his nakedness.Vs. 2.-They who mocked Elisha were smitten by the wrath ofGod.Vs. 3.—So for us, Christ, Thou Holy One, dost suffer grievouswrong.We read in the ninth chapter of Genesis that Noah was sleepingwithin his tent, lying naked upon the ground; when his son Hamsaw him he laughed him to scorn, but his other sons would notbehold him, but covered their eyes . Noah is a type of Christ,when the Jews laughed Him to scorn, and crowned Him andstripped Him; thus those faithless sons mocked him as though hewere a fool.David (Ps. xxii. 7).—“ All they that see Me laugh Me to scorn."Lamentations iii. 14.— “ I was a derision to all My people.”We read in the second book of Kings, and the second chapter,that when the prophet Elisha was going up into Mount Bethelthere met him some children who cried out and mocked him, andlaughed him to scorn saying, “ Go up, thou bald-head; go up, thoubald- head! " Elisha is a type of Christ, whom His children —thatis, the Jews—mocked in His crowning and passion.Prov. xix. 29.-" Judgments are prepared for scorners, and stripes for the back of fools."Isa. i. "They have blasphemed the Holy One of Israel. "Christ bearing His cross.Vs. 1.-That boy, bearing the wood, foreshadows Thee, O Christ!Vs. 2.-The widow's crossed pieces of wood are mystic signs.Vs. 3.-Christ bears the tree of the cross, thinking it a worthyburden for Himself.We read in Gen. xxii. 6, that when Abraham and Isaac set outtogether, Abraham carried the sword and the fire, but Isaac carrieu

• The reference given to this verse in the Biblia Pauperum is Ps. xviii.

This is evidently a mistake.BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 4198the wood by which he was himself to be sacrificed; this Isaac whocarried the wood is a type of Christ, who carried on His own bodythe wood of the cross on which He meant to be sacrificed for us.Isa. liii. 7.—“ He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter. "Psalms.-" Run, hasten to save the victim. "We read in 1 Kings xvii. 10, that Elijah cried out to a womanwho was going into the field to collect wood, and make food forherself, and she, answering him, said: " Lo, I gather two sticks, andwith them will I dress food for me and my son." The two stickswhich the woman gathered were types of the wood of the crosswhich Christ took to carry on His own body.Jer. xi. 19.-" Come, let us destroy the stalk with his bread."Jer. xi. 19.-" I was like a lamb or an ox that is brought to theslaughter."Christ on the Cross.Vs. 1. -The father sacrifices his son, who typifies Christ.Vs. 2.-The wounded are healed when they behold the serpentraised.Vs. 3.-The Passion of Christ snatches us from the gloomyabyss.Gen. xxii. 10. -We read in Gen. xxii. that when Abraham hadstretched forth his hand to slay his son, the angel of the Lord fromheaven prevented him, saying, " Stretch not forth thine handagainst the child. " Abraham signifies the Heavenly Father, whosacrificed His Son, to wit, Christ, for us all , on the Cross, that thusHe might show us a sign of His fatherly love.Ps. xxii. 16.—“ They pierced My hands and My feet.”Job xli. 1.-" Canst thou draw out Leviathan with a hook."Num. xxi. 9.-We read in Numbers xxi. 9, that when the Lordwilled to save the people from the serpents which had bitten them,He commanded Moses to make a brazen serpent and to hang itfrom a tree, so that whosoever looked upon it should be saved fromthe serpents. The serpent which was hung up and beheld by thepeople signifies Christ on the cross, whom all should behold whewould be saved from the serpent, that is , the devil.Isa. liii. 7.--"He was oppressed and He was afflicted; and theLord hath laid on Him the iniquity of us all. ”Hab. iii. 4.-" He had horns coming out of his hand, and therewas the hiding of his power."2E 2420 APPENDIX III.The Crucifixion and the soldier with a spear.Vs. 1. —As the first woman proceeded from the side of the man:Vs. 2.-As water from the rock struck by Moses signifies Christ:Vs. 3.-So hence water came forth with blood from the side ofChrist.Gen. ii. 21.-We read in Gen. ii. 21, that while Adam wasasleep the Lord took a rib from out of his side and with it made awoman; Adam, asleep, is a type of Christ already dead upon thecross, from whose side flowed for us the sacraments when the soldier,with a lance, pierced the side of Christ.David ( Ps. lxix. 26).—“ And they talk to the griefof those whom Thou hast wounded."Lam. i. 12.-" O you who pass by, behold and see if there beany sorrow like unto My sorrow.We read in Exodus xvii. 6, that when Moses led the peoplethrough the desert and they were thirsy from the lack of water,Moses with the rod which he held in his hand smote a rock;and there gushed water in great abundance as if from an abyss.This unavenged rock or stone signifies Christ, who for us pouredforth healing waters to wit, the sacraments-from His side whenon the cross He suffered it to be pierced by the soldier's lance.Zech. xiii. 6.—" What are these wounds in Thy hands?Amos viii . 9.-"In that day I will cause the sun to go down atnoon; I will darken the earth in the clear day."Entombment ofChrist.Vs. 1.-He is thrust into that ancient tomb.Vs. 2. —Jonah is swallowed, yet found again unhurt.Vs. 3.-Myrrh is brought and Christ is buried by these.We read in Gen. xxxvii . 24, that when the brothers of Josephwished to sell him to the Ishmaelites, they stripped him of his coat,and threw him into an old pit. This Joseph is a type of Christ, whowas thrown into a pit-that is, the tomb-when His friends took Him from the cross and laid Him in it.David (Ps. lxxviii. 65).—“ The Lord awaketh as one out ofsleep, and like a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine."Isa. xi. 10.- " And His rest shall be glorious."We read in the book of Jonah, chapter ii. , that when Jonahhimself took ship to go to a place called Tharys, a great storm aroseBIBLIA PAUPERUM. 421on the sea, and those who were in the ship cast lots among themselves; and the lot fell upon Jonah, whom they seized and threwinto the sea; and a mighty fish straightway swallowed him, inwhose belly he was three days and three nights. Jonah typifiesChrist, who was three days and three nights in the belly of theearth.Song of Solomon v. 2.-" I sleep, but my heart waketh."Gen. xlix. 9.—“ He stooped down, he couched as a lion.”The descent into Hell.Vs. 1.-Typifying Thee, O Christ, he (David) subdued Goliath.Vs. 2.-And as Samson's strength that destroyed the lion's mouth:Vs. 3.-So the death of Christ destroyed the gates of Hell.We read in the first book of Samuel, chapter xvii., that Davidsmote the giant Goliath with his own sword and slew him, and cutoff his head; so Christ, who rose from the dead, freed men from hell,and saved them from the power of the devil, and weakened the devil himself in his power.Psa. cvii. 16.-" For He hath broken the gates of brass, and cutthe bars of iron in sunder."Zech. ix. 11.—“ By the blood of Thy covenant I have sent forthThy prisoners out of the pit where there is no water."We read in the first book of Judges, chapter xiv. , concerningSamson, that when a lion roared against him, he seized the lion andslew him; Samson is a type of Christ, who slew the lion, that is tho devil, when He freed men from his power.Hosea xiii. 14.-" O Death, I will be thy plagues; Ograve, I willbe thy destruction. "Gen. xlix. 9.-" From the prey, my son, thou art gone up."The Resurrection.Vs. 1.-Samson carried off the gates of the city.Vs. 2.—The man (Jonah) rising up, denotes Thee, O Christ.Vs. 3.-Christ comes forth, bursting the tomb covered by a stone.We read in the 16th chapter of the book of Judges, concerningSamson, that in the middle of the night he arose, and of his ownmight cast down both the brazen gates of the city, and, going outfrom the city, carried them with him. Samson is a type of Christ,422 APPENDIX III.who, rising from the grave in the middle of the night, cast down thegates of the tomb and left it in freedom and power.David lxxviii. 65.—" Then the Lord awaked as one out of sleep."Hosea vi. 2, 3.— " In the third day He will raise us up, and weshall know and follow Him."We read, in the second chapter of the book of the prophet Jonah,that when Jonah himself had been in the belly of the whale threedays and three nights, afterwards the fish vomited out Jonah ondry land. Jonah, who after three days came out from the fish, is atype of Christ, who after three days came out, or arose, from thegrave.Gen. xlix. 9.—-" Judah, my son, is a lion's whelp."Zeph. iii. 8.—“ [ Wait] until the day of My resurrection. I willgather the nations."The three Maries and the Angel at the tomb.Vs. 1.-As Reuben fears that the lost boy is killed.Vs. 2.-As she (the daughter of Zion) with holy zeal seeketh her lost spouse.Vs. 3.-So they, seeking Thee, O Christ, learnt from the angel that Thou livest.We read, in the 37th chapter of Genesis, that Reuben came andsought his brother Joseph in the well; and when he found it he wasgreatly troubled, and said to his brethren, " The child is not there;and I, whither shall I go? " This Reuben signifies Mary Magdalene,who with sorrow and devotion sought for Christ in the tomb, andreceived from the angel the answer that He had risen from the dead;she herself was afterwards found worthy to see Him.Isa. lv. 6.—" Seek ye the Lord while He may be found: call ye upon Him while He is near. "Micah vii. 7.—" Therefore I will look unto the Lord; I will waitfor the God of my salvation."We read in Solomon's Song, third chapter, concerning that bridewho, while seeking for her beloved spouse, saith, " I have soughthim whom my soul loveth, and I have not found him." Thisbride is a type of Mary Magdalene, who sought her Beloved in thetomb, and afterwards, when He had risen, found Him.David cv. 3-" Let the heart of them rejoice that seek the Lord."Gen. xlix. 18.—“ I have waited for Thy salvation. "BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 423Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene in the Garden.Vs. 1.—The king rejoices when he sees ( Daniel) alive.Vs. 2.-The loved bride now rejoices over her spouse whom shesought.Vs. 3. Showing Thyself, O Christ, Thou comfortest the holyMary.We read in Daniel vi. that when the prophet Daniel was castinto the lions' den, that the lions might slay him, in the morningthe king came to the lions' den, and to Daniel to see if he still lived,and when he saw him alive he rejoiced greatly. Now this kingsignifies Mary Magdalene, when she came to the tomb after seeingher Lord, and rejoiced greatly because He had risen from the dead.David ix. 10.-" Thou, Lord, hast not forsaken them that seekThee."Isa. lxi. 10.-" I will greatly rejoice in the Lord; my soul shall bejoyful in my God. ”We read in the Song of Solomon, chap. iii . , that when the bridehad found her beloved she said, " I have found him whom my soulloveth, and I will again hold him and will not let him go. " Thisbride is a type of Mary Magdalene, who, seeing her spouse, that isChrist, would fain have held Him; but He answered thus: " Touchme not, for I have not yet ascended to my Father."1 Sam. ii. 1; Cant. iii. 4.-" My heart rejoiceth in the Lord.""I held him; I would not let him go."Hosea ii. 14.-" I will bring her into the wilderness, and therespeak unto her heart."Christ appearing to His disciples.Vs. 1.-He (Joseph) who formerly vexed his brethren, nowembraces them.Vs. 2.-The father in tears embraces his son, now recovered.Vs. 3.-Jesus appears to these (disciples); His risen glory isrevealed.We read in Genesis xlv. that Joseph saw his brethren smittenwith fear and afraid of the multitude, and knowing not that it wasJoseph; and he said to them: " I am your brother Joseph: touch me not," and thus he consoled them. Joseph signifies Christ, whoafter His resurrection appeared to His disciples who were in theflesh, and spake to them and comforted them, saying, " Fear not, Iam. •"424 APPENDIX III.David (Ps. xvi. 11).—" In Thy presence is fulness ofjoy."Isaiah li . 1.-" Look unto the Rock whence ye are hewn."We read in the 15th chapter of the gospel of St. Luke that theson of a certain rich man said unto his father, " Give me my portionof the inheritance; " and when he had given it unto him he departed!into a far country and squandered all his substance, and thenreturned to his father, who received him kindly and comforted him.Now this good father signifies that Heavenly Father who, coming toHis disciples after His death, comforted them and showed them His resurrection .Wisd. i . 2.-" He sheweth Himself unto such as do not distrustHim."Ezek. xxxiv. 11.-" Behold I, even I, will both search My sheepand seek them out."The incredulity of Thomas.Vs. 1.-The Angel exhorts Gideon not to fear.Vs. 2.-Jacob, when he wrestled, was named Israel and blessed.Vs. 3.-Thou dost suffer Thyself to be touched, that he maygive in.Judges vi. 12.-We read in the sixth chapter of Judges that theangel of the Lord came to Gideon and said unto him, " The Lordis with thee, thou mighty man of valour, wherefore thou thyselfshalt deliver the people, " which came to pass. Now Gideon signifies Thomas, to whom there came an angel, a wonderful Counsellor, to wit, Christ, to strengthen him in his faith, saying untohim, "Thrust thine hand into My side , and behold the marks ofthe nails; and be not faithless, but believing. "Isa. lvii . 18.—“ I have sent him away and I have brought himback. I have seen him and will heal him. I will lead him alsoand restore comforts unto him and to his mourners."99David. " Make glad , O Lord, the heart of Thy servant."Gen. xxxii. —We read in the thirty-second chapter of Genesisthat when an angel of the Lord came to Jacob, he seized the angeland wrestled with him, and did not let him go until he blessedhim. Jacob signifies Thomas the apostle, who by touching anangel, to wit, Christ, was deemed worthy to get a blessing-that is an assurance of Christ's resurrection.In the Vulgate: " Vias ejus vidi, et sanavi eum, et redux; eum et reddidi consolationis ipsi , et lugentibus ejus. "BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 425Jer. xxxi. 18.-" Turn Thou me and I shall be turned, for Thouart the Lord my God."Zeph. iii. 7.-" Surely thou wilt fear Me; thou wilt receive instruction. "The Ascension.Vs. 1.-Enoch, translated, is joined to the company of heaven.Vs. 2.-Elias was translated into heaven, carried through the air.Vs. 3.-Saint of saints: Christ seeks the stars of heaven.Gen. v. 24.-We read in the fifth chapter of Genesis that Enochpleased God, and was translated into Paradise; Enoch, who pleasedGod, is a type of Christ, who pleased the Father on high, andwas therefore thought worthy to ascend to the heavenly Paradise—that is, heaven―tor, in the day of His ascension, He exalted Himabove all the choirs of angels.David ( Ps. xlvii. 5).—“ God is gone up with a shout: the Lordwith the sound of a trumpet."Deut. xxxii. 11 .-" As an eagle stirreth up her nest, flutterethover her young.""2 Kings ii . 9.-We read in the second book of Kings, secondchapter, that when Elijah the prophet was raised into heaven in afiery chariot, Elisha cried out, " My father, my father, the chariot ofIsrael and the horsem*n thereof. ” Elijah is a type of Christ, whomHis apostles, typified by Elisha, saw ascending into heaven, andwondered when Christ said unto them, " I go unto My Father."Isa . lxiii. 1.—“ Who is this that cometh from Edom, with dyedgarments from Bozrah? "Micah ii. 13.-" The Breaker is come up before them. "Descent ofthe Holy Ghost.Vs. 1.-The Divine Law was given to Moses from the top ofSinai.Vs. 2.-The celestial flame comes to soften the hearts of men.Vs. 3.-The gentle Spirit fills the hearts of the faithful.Exod. xxiv. 12; xxxi. 18.-We read in the twenty-fourth chapterof Exodus that the Lord said to Moses: " Come up to Me into themountain, and I will give thee the two tables of the covenant."

• " Spreadeth abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her wings:

so the Lord alone did lead him " [ Israel].-The Song of Moses.426 APPENDIX III.Just as the law was given to Moses and was written on tables ofstone, so, on the day of Pentecost, a new law was written in thehearts of the faithful collected together when the fire appearedabove them.David (Ps. civ. 30).-" Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit; they are created. "Ezek. xxxvi. 27.-" I will put My Spirit within you."1 Kings xviii. 38.—We read in the eighteenth chapter of thefirst book of Kings that when Elijah the prophet had placed theholocaust, that is, one bull, upon the wood, and in the presence ofthe people called upon the Lord; the fire coming down from heavendevoured everything: and so the people believed in the Lord. Thisfire from heaven signifies that Divine fire which, on the day ofPentecost, came upon the disciples, and cleansed them and devouredall their sin and wickedness.Wisd. i. 7.—" For the Spirit of the Lord filleth the world."Joel ii. 29.-" Upon the handmaids and upon the servants will Ipour out My Spirit."Coronation ofthe Virgin.Vs. 1.-His mother cometh in: Solomon placeth her nexthimself.Vs. 2.-Like as Esther cometh in and doeth honour toAhasuerus.Vs. 3.-By taking to thyself the holy Mary, do honour unto her.1 Kings ii. 19.-We read in the first book of Kings (chap. ii. )that when Bathsheba, the mother of Solomon, had entered in untohim, into his palace, king Solomon commanded a throne to beplaced for his mother next to his own throne. Bathsheba signifiesthe glorious Virgin, whose throne is placed next the throne of thetrue Solomon, that is-Jesus Christ.David. " All the rich among the people will pray not to seeThy face. "Isa. xxxv. 2.-" The glory of Lebanon is given to her, theexcellency of Carmel and Sharon. "Esther ii. 17.-We read in the book of Esther (chap. ii. ) thatwhen queen Esther had come to king Ahasuerus into his palace,king Ahasuerus himself, to do her honour, placed her next himself;queen Esther signifies the Virgin Mary whom Ahasuerus-that isBIBLIA PAUPERUM. 427Christ-in the day of the assumption, placed in heavenly glory nextHimself.Solomon's Song viii. 5.-" Who is this that cometh up from thewilderness? "Wisd.-" O how fair is a chaste generation with love! "The Last Judgment.Vs. 1.-Solomon decrees that the child is justly to be given toits mother.Vs. 2.-David thus judgeth him because of the Lord Christ.Vs. 3.-I judge worthy of condemnation the wicked and theimpious together.1 Kings iii. 16-28.--We read in the third chapter of the firstbook of Kings that there came to Solomon the two mothers whowere harlots, and pleaded before him as judge about the overlaidchild and the living one, and when he could not judge otherwise, hesaid: " Bring me a sword and divide the living child; " and thebowels of the living child's mother went out ùnto him, and shesaid: " Give her the living child; " and she ceased from the trial.In the wise Solomon we see Christ, who judged the just and theunjust by the true judgment.Eccles. iii. 17.—“ God shall judge the righteous and the wicked.”Isa. ii. 4.—“ He shall judge among the nations, and shall rebukemany people."2 Sam. i. 15, 16.-We read in the second book of Samuel thatKing David, after the death of Saul, remained in Ziklag; and onecoming from the land of the Amalekites boasted that he had slainthe Lord's Anointed, to wit, king Saul; and sentence of death waspassed upon him by king David because his mouth had spokenagainst him; and he said to his armour-bearer, “ Fall upon him andslay him." David is a type of Christ, who will reward all nationswith equity to each according to his sins, just as David is about tojudge the Amalekite.1 Sam. ii. 10.-" The Lord shall judge the ends of the earth. "Ezek. vii. 3.-" I will judge thee according to thy ways."Hell.Vs. 1. —These are given unto the earth because they serve notChrist.428 APPENDIX III.Vs. 2.-For the sins of their lives thus are the men of Sodomgiven to destruction.Vs. 3. Thus are they afflicted and punished who follow wickedness.Deut. xi. 6. -We read in the eleventh chapter of Deuteronomythat Dathan and Abiram, who lived in the middle of Israel, wereswallowed up by the earth, with their houses and tents, becausethey kept not the commandments of God. By Dathan andAbiram are meant those sinners who, caring not for the CatholicLaw nor the Law of the Decalogue, go down into hell, which is theplace of sinners, full of guile and of fire, which will devour them;and with the devil they shall be punished.Wisd. xviii. 11.-" And like as the king so suffered thecommon person."Jer. xxv. 10.-" Moreover, I will take from them the voice ofgladness."Gen. xix. 24.-We read in the nineteenth chapter of Genesisthat for the sins of the men of Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord sentfire from heaven upon those cities; and they were both overturned.By Sodom and Gomorrah are meant those sinners living uponearth according to the lusts ofthe flesh, which blind their eyes; andwhen the morning shall rise there will appear all the sinners onearth; and alive they will be doomed to hell and damned.David (Ps. lxxv. 8).—“ His dregs are not drained; all the sinners of the world shall drain them."Job.-" Satiati sunt poenis meis." (" They are fulfilled with mypains. ")Christ with the souls ofthe blessed in His mantle.Vs. 1.-The sons of Job rejoice because they are thus happilydaring.Vs. 2.-The angel appears; Jacob thereat rejoiceth greatly.Vs. 3.-0 Father in heaven, Thou wouldst lead me in greenpastures!Job. i . 4.—We read in the first chapter of the book of Job thathis sons held feasts in their houses, each in his own house, andthey sent for their sisters to eat and drink with them. The sons ofJob are those righteous men who keep daily feasts, sending forBIBLIA PAUPERUM. 429those who shall be saved to come to the eternal happiness, and forever to enjoy God. Amen.David xxxiii. 1.-" Rejoice in the Lord, all ye just, and beproud, all ye that are true of heart."Josh. i. 3.-" Every place that the sole of your foot shall treadupon [ I have given you, as I said unto Moses]. "Gen. xxviii. 10-13. -We read in the twenty- eighth chapter ofGenesis that when Jacob saw the sun setting, he found a stone,which he placed under his head; and in his dream he saw a ladderstretching from the earth to the heaven, and angels descending, andthe Lord standing above it, saying to him, “ The earth on whichthou sleepest will I give unto thee and to thy seed for ever." By Jacob understand the faithful soul, which, when it sleeps upon astone—that is, Christ—will gain the land flowing with milk andhoney—that is, the kingdom of heaven.Tobias xi. 9.-" Et flere ceperunt præ gaudio." (" And they beginto weep for joy. ")Isa. lxvi. 10.—“ Rejoice ye with Jerusalem, and be glad with her,all ye that love her."The reward ofthe righteous.Vs. 1.-The praise of a true soul I have thought to rejoice in formy spouse.Vs. 2. -The bridegroom loves his spouse; so doth Christ greatly love His fair bride.Vs. 3. Then souls rejoice in spirit when all good is given to them.Solomon's Song iv. 7.-We read in the fourth chapter ofSolomon's Song that the bridegroom addresses his spouse, takingher and saying, “ Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot inthee; come, my love, and thou shalt be crowned." That trueBridegroom is Christ, who, taking that bride, which is the soul,without spot of any sin, brings her to eternal rest, and crowns herwith a crown of immortality.David (Ps.xix. 5) .—" Like a bridegroom coming from his chamber. "Ezek. xxiv. 17.-" Bind thy crown upon thine head, and put thyshoes upon thy feet."Revelation. We read in the Apocalypse (chap. xxi. ) that theangel of God caught John the Evangelist when he was in the430 APPENDIX III.spirit, and, wishing to show him the secret things of God, said tohim, " Come, I will show unto thee the bride, the Lamb's wife."The angel speaks to all in general to come in the spirit, and witnessChrist, the innocent Lamb, crowning the innocent soul.Isa. lxi. 10.-" He hath clothed me with the garments ofsalvation as bridegroom, He hath crowned me with a crown. "Hosea ii. 19.-" I will betroth thee to Me for ever."THE END.DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.VOL. I.·•••••·TITLE.Charlemagne ChristSt. John Evan.God the Father .St. Gregory IV.Three PersonsChrist, head of Christ •Apollo with rays Abraxas: Panthaicdivinity.Trinity: three crucif.nimbi.Hindoo MayaLamb cruc. nimbus Christ in oval nimbusChrist, Alpha and Omega.Christ's Ascension .Christ, beardlessNATURE AND ORIGIN.Glass painting, StrasbourgAntiq. Ex. Montfaucon.t Gnostic gemHeures du Duc d'Anjou, Bibl. Nat.Paris.Religions de l'Antiquité. Hindostan .Bosio, Rom. Sott.§ Roman Catacombs Fresco, Montorio ch. , near Vendôme. ||Fresco, Meteora, Thessaly .Christ and the Earth Sculpture sarcophagus, Vatican, RomeAbraham and AngelsTrinityDivine Hand .God the Father . •Lamb, A and . ·Bible, MS. , No. 6, Bibl. Nat. , Paris Liber Precum, Bibl. Nat. , Paris Fresco, Mt. Athos, Greece .Spec. Hum. Sal. , Bibl. Nat. , Paris, Lat.9584.Sculpture, sarcophagus, Vatican, RomeJohn Baptist winged Fresco, Kaiçariani, Mount Hymettus .Emp. Henry II . •DATE. PAGEcirc. 1100 23Spec. Bibl. Nat., Lat. 9584, Paris .Glass, St. Rèmi, Rheimscirc. 1300 24 circ. 1100 29Fresco, Mt. Athos, Greece . circ. 1600 30 Mosaic. Roman A.D. 828 31Bibl. Sacra, 6829, Bibl. Roy., Paris circ. 1250 32Bibl. Nat. 920, Paris circ. 1500 33Bibl. Nat. , Paris circ. 850 34Antiq. Ex. Montfaucon.* Roman 35361250 3941• 4344 circ. 1300 46Wood- carving, Italy (M. Durand's coll. ).circ. 1300 48Fresco. Roman Catacombs • 1st Xtian 51period.1st Xtian 53period.circ. 900 54 circ. 800 55 · 60 circ. 1300 641st Xtian 67period.· • 70Painted glass, Strasbourg cathedral 12th or 75 14th cent.Pope Paschal • · Mosaic, church of St. Cecilia, Rome · circ. 800 77

• Tom. i . p. 118, pl. 54. Tom. iv. p. 363. Atlas, pl. 19 , No. 103.

Ed. Rome, 1636. p. 627.See Musée Egyptien, Louvre; The Zodiac of Denderah; Atlas des Religions de l'Antiquité;Peintures et Ornements des Manuscrits, being one among a collection of treatises ( MS. de la Bibliothèque Royale fonds de St. Germain).432 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. I.TITLE. NATURE AND ORIGIN. DATE. PAGEchalice.Leo III.Liberty Diana with nimbus.SunEve.•Bishop nimbed, withSt. Peter and Pope Mosaic. Triclinium, S. Giov. Laterano;now in Vatican Triclinium.Sculptured figure, Chartres cathedral*Sculpture, Rom. Montfaucon, Antiq.Ex., tom. ii. 414.Sculpture, EtruscanGod with Adam and Sculpture sarcophagus. Catacombs,Christ with flat nim- bus.Christ with nimbusNimbus, a thread of light.God in aureoleThe Lord in aureole of cloud.God in aureoleTransfiguration .Christ in aureoleMary in oval Soul of St. MartinMary and Infant Mercury nimbedPersian king, nimbed Satan torments Job Beast with seven heads.Christ as Creator ·Christ the Almighty Christ as St. Sophia Jehovah of battles .Rome; Bosio, Rom. Sott. p. 295.Wood-carving, Stalls, Amiens .MS. 920, Bibl. Nat. , Paris .Raphael, Disputá, RomeFresco, Auxerre cathedral, crypt .MS. de St. Sever., Bibl. Nat. , ParisFresco, Salamis conventPainted glass, Chartres cathedral .Psalter St. Louis, Bibl. de l'Arsénal,1186.Liber Precum, Bibl . Nat. , ParisPainted glass, Cathedral, Chartres MS. , Bibl. de Ste. Geneviève, ParisRoman sculpture, Antiq . Exq. Mont- faucon, tom. ii . pl. 223, p. 414.Persian MS. , Bibl. Nat. , Paris tMS. Bible, No. 6, Bibl. Nat. , Paris .Psalterium cum figuris, No. 8846,Bibl. Nat. , Paris.Pont. MS. Latin, Bibl. de la Minerva,Rome.c. 800 80821250858858687 1st Xtian 98period.• circ. 1500 102• • • circ. 1500 104· · 105• 1150 to 108 1200 • 111circ. 1700 114 12th cent. 117 1200 to 120 1250 circ. 900 12213th cent. 12416th cent. 128 132• 133 circ. 950 15812th cent. 163Fresco and ivory, Gori, Thesaurus Vet. | 12th cent.173dipt. ii. p. 160 Fresco, Salamis . • 18th cent. 176Miniature, Lyons · 12th cent. 179MS. Psalter, Bibl. Nat. Suppl . fr.1132, bis.12th cent. 186Isaiah, Night & Day Psalterium cum figuris, Bibl. Nat. ,Paris. Greek, No. 139.10th cent.202(classic. )Baptism of Christ lat. 641.Divine handLiber Precum, Bibl. Nat. , Paris. Suppl.Sculptured, Ferrara cathedral porch . 12th cent.Nicolo Alemanni, De Lateranensibus Parietinis, Rome, 1625, p . 12.Peintures et Ornements des MSS. Engravingsfrom Kares, Mt. Athos.note: Didron, vol. i . p. 59.M. de Bastard.Greek Iconography,+ See Persian MS. Bibl. St. Geneviève ent. Medgialis; and Livre des Augures, a Turkish MS., Bibl. Nat. , Paris.9th cent. 204205LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. I. 433TITLE. NATURE AND ORIGIN. DATE. PAGEDivine hand and crown.Hand holding SoulsMosaic, Santa Maria Nova, Rome, Vet.Monimenta, 2nd pt. , fig. 53.A.D. 848 206Fresco, Salamis 1100 or 210 1735Face ofChrist as God Heures du Duc de Berri, fol . 65., Bibl. 14th cent. 211Nat. Paris God, beardless •Trinity MS. treatise St. Augustine, Beauvais . 11th cent.Psalter M.S, Bibl. de Chartres .212circ. 1200 214Trinity Heures du Duc d'Anjou, Bib. Nat. , Paris circ. 1250 215Trinity Roman des trois Pèlerinages, Bibl. St. Geneviève, 226 fol.1350 217Creator as PopeGod as Pope, five crowns.Jehovah .Creation of Angels .Christ as Apolloworld(personified)Wood-carving, Hautvilliers, Rheims Psalterium cum figuris, Bibl. Nat.Suppl. fr. 1132.Sculpture, tomb of Junius Bassus.Roman.Painted glass, St. Madeleine de Troyes.Painted glass, St. Martin ès Vignes,Troyes.16th cent.21816th cent.22617th cent. 2311250 2404th cent. 250throned aboveChrist the Judge Orcagna, Campo Santo, Pisa* 14th cent. 263Christ crucified . Ivory, Latin, but semi-Byzantine, Bib. 12th cent.Nat. , Paris.269Christ triumphant .Temptation of Christ Ivory, lower side, ibid. Ibid. 2721Psalterium cum figuris, MS. Bibl. Nat. , 12th cent.Paris.277Painted glass, Jouy, near Rheims .16th cent. 281Greek painting.15th cent. 282Seal of Mt. Athos, Convent of St. Laura Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa .284 14th cent. 286Miniature in Romant des trois Pèlerin- A.D. 1358 29610th cent. 298The Mother & Jesus Jesus and archangels Mother and JesusMary glorified Word of God (Mis- sion of).Christ subdues serpent, basilisk and lion and dragon.Christ chains devil .Christ a pilgrimJesus shows the Fa- ther His wounds.Christ as Archbishopin heaven.Triumph of Christ .ages, Bibl. St. Geneviève, Paris.Ivory, Vatican MuseumMissal of Worms, Bibl. de l'Arsénal,Theol. Lat. , No. 192, in fol.Rom. trois Pèlerinages, Bibl. St. Gene- viève.Spec. Hum. Salvationis, Bibl. Nat.Suppl. Lat. 9584.Fresco, cupola of Greek church +Fresco on vault, cathedral, Auxerre,east crypt.Buffalmacco paints Christ as Creator at Pisa, p. 240.9th or 300 10th cent.¦A.D. 1358 301circ. 1350 304306309+ Similar subject at Rheims (Divine Liturgy), also in MS. du Duc d'Anjou, Lavall, 127 in Bibl. Nat. Origin of Raphael's Disputa. See p. 231, supra.VOL. II. 2 F434 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. I.TITLE.Lamb of GodNATURE AND ORIGIN.Copper-plate book-binding, Musée de Cluny, Paris.DATE . PAGE1000 320•••John Baptist carries Lamb.John Baptist carries Lamb.Ram with Cross .Apostles as lambsThe Lamb, use ofSeven-eyed & seven- horned Lamb.The Good ShepherdTomb of oil-vendorSculpture, Troyes cathedralSculpture, Latin, Tomb of JuniusBassus, Musée Chrétienne, Rome.Miniature, Theol. Lat. Apocalypse, Bibl.de l'Arsenal.Fresco, Catacombs, Rome, Bosio, 351 .Sculpture, cathedral, Chartres · 13th cent. 322Painting, fol . 187, Rom. des trois Pèle- rinages, St. Geneviève, Paris.A.D. 1358 32313th cent. 325Sculpture, sarcophagus, Vatican, Roma Sott. , p. 63.1st Xtian 327period.4th cent. 33113th cent. 3341st Xtian 339period.Sculpture, Latin, Roma Sott. , Bosio, p.302.5th cent. 355Tomb of architect • Sculpture, Latin, Roma Sott. , p. 505 . 1st Xtian 356period.Greek cross,.arms.Tomb of sailor . • Sculpture, Salviati Coll. , RomeTombs, various at- Sculpture and painting, Catacombs tributes on.Vine-dresser's gravePlan of Greek crosschurch.armed.Sculpture, Catacombs, Bosio, Rom.Sott.., p. 505.Drawing by Bishop Arculfe, France, on waxen tablet.two- Sculpture, AthenianDescent into Hades .Cross of LorraineGreek cross, twoCross quartered .Miniature, MS. Bibl. Nat. , Paris .Sculpture, Mount Athos, St. Laura Convent.• • 1st Xtian 357period.• 1st Xtian 359period.1st Xtian 365period.7th cent. 37811th cent. 38313th cent. 385 1st Xtian 387period.Greek crossesCross, six-branched .Cross, six-branched .Sculpture, Athens • ·· Fresco, Catacombs .· Sculpture, Sarcophagi .• 11th cent. 3891st Xtian 391period.1st Xtian 392period.CatacombsMystic cross Starry cross .· •Crosses, Greek and Latin.Monogram and crossSculpture on capital, Ch. of Demetrius,Salonica.Sculpture, Salonica .Sculpture, CatacombsEngraved stone .4th cent. 393· • · • 4th cent. 393 1st Xtian 394period.1st Xtian 395period.. · • 396 • · Mosaic, Ravenna, Ciampini, Vet. Mon. 6th cent. 397pt. i. , pl. 24.LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. I. 435•Bibl. de St. Geneviève, Paris.Miniature, Hortus DeliciarumHerrade, Strasbourg. *TITLE. NATURE AND ORIGIN.Crosses, Greek and Sculpture, Rheims; Laon, Berne Latin.Dante's crossDavid and Intelli- gence.Holy Ghost, Intelli- gence.Holy Ghost, Dove •Coronation of Virgin,Holy Ghost Man.asSt. Gregory and Holy Ghost.Standard, Holy GhostSix-winged AngelTetramorph wheels.Youth (Spirit of)••DATE. PAGE399Florentine engraving, Paradiso, canto xiv. 1. 94.A.D. 1491 400Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,10th cent. 432Greek MS. , No. 139.Miniature, Bibl. Nat. , fonds Lavall 14th cent. 43515th cent. 442· 16th cent. 445Miniature, Book of Hours, Bibl. de l'Arsenal, Theol. Fr. viii . , fol . 3, verso.Wood-carving, stalls, Amiens .Sculpture, Chartres, Notre Dame de .Painting by Perugino, church of St. Gervais, Paris.on Mosaic, Vatopédi, Mount AthosChurch (the), as adove.Demon as bird .. •13th cent. 448Miniature, Bibl. Nat. , Paris; Heures du Duc de Berri.15th cent. 45015th cent. 452.453Miniature, Rom. des trois Pèlerinages. 14th cent. 454of 11th cent. 456Miniature, Herrade, Hortus Deliciarum, 11th cent.465Strasbourg.Demon as black insect.Miniature, Cité de Dieu, Bibl. St. Geneviève, fol. 21.16th cent. 466Spirit as child on waters.Spirit as child of eight years.Virgin, Child, and doves.Virgin, Child, six doves.Miniature, service book, Suppl. i . , 638.15th cent. 470 Bibl. Nat. , Paris.Miniature, Heures, Lat. , Bibl. St. Geneviève, 464.16th cent. 471Miniature, Bibl. Nat. , Biblia Sacra, 14th cent. 476 6829.Painted window, Chartres, west porch, 13th cent. 486 right side.Coronation of Virgin Sculpture, church of Verrières, dept.16th cent. 494 l'Aube.Dove with cruciform nimbus.Miniature, Bibl. Nat. , MS. Latin, fonds Lavalle.14th cent. 497Dove radiating .Deve at creation Miniature, Heures, Bibl. Nat. , Paris.Painted window, Auxerre cathedral,sanctuary.15th cent. 498 13th cent. 500Trinity . • · • Painting, church of St. Riquier · 15th cent. 505

• Dante and Herrade, note p. 458. Guizot's translation of Hist. Eccl. Franc. , vol . ii . p. 136.

Taylor (Abaron) Voyage Pittoresque dans l'Ancienne France. Missal of Poitiers, Bibl.Nat. 833.2 F 2436 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.VOL. II.TITLE.God and angel creating man.Trinity, Behemoth .Baptism, Trinity Trinity of Evil .Trinity of Evil .Time, three -faced personification.Trinity at Creation .NATURE AND ORIGIN. DATE. PAGEMiniature, Psalterium cum figuris, 13th cent. 14 Bibl. Nat.Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,Bibl. Nat.13th cent. 17. Wood-carving, Italian, Durant Col.Min., Bibl. Nat. , French, Emblema.Biblica.14th cent. 19 13th cent. 22. Min. , France, Hist. St. Graal, Bibl.Nat. , 6770.15th cent. 23Miniature, Bibl. de l'Arsénal, MS.Theol. Lat. 133c. , Officium Eccle- siastic.14th cent. 25Miniature, Hortus Deliciarum, Stras- burg.12th cent.Three faces in one head.Min. , Spanish, Chron. d'Isidore de Seville, MS. Bibl. Nat. 7135.13th cent.Trinity as three circles.Min. MS. , Bibl. Chartres 13th cent.Triplicity in Unity . Engraving, German, Gruter, Cab. desThree faces, one headThree faces, one head Three divine PersonsEstampes, Bibl. Nat.16th cent.Printed on vellum, Hours, SimonVostre, Paris.1524Min. , French, MS. Henry II. , Bibl. Nat.Min. , French, Cité de Dieu, MS. Bibl.St. Geneviève.16th cent.16th cent.Trinity, Holy Ghost proceeding.Trinity, Holy Ghost proceeding.TrinityMin. , French, MS. Duc d'Anjou, Bibl.Nat.13th cent.Min. , French, MS. Bibl. Troyes, from Abb. Notre Dame aux Nonnains.12th cent.Wood engraving 12th cent.forms.Three faces, one headGod and Universe •God holding scales and compasses.Trinity, humanSeraph of St. Fran- cis.Thrones .AngelWood engraving, Italian, Dante,printed, Par. , fol. cclxxviii.Buffalmacco, fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa.Miniature, Psalterium cum figuris,A.D. 149114th cent.≈++35822042444651535764697072737613th cent. 78 Bibl. Nat.15th cent. 81Min. , Bibl. Nat. , Hours of Anne of 90 France.Fresco, Athens 13th cent. 91Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 92Wingless angels . Painting, Nat. Gall . , London, Piero della Francesca.14th cent. 93Angel without legs Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa . 14th cent. 94LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. II. 437TITLE.Angel of Ascension .Six-winged AngelNATURE AND ORIGIN.Manuscript, Bibl. Nat. , Paris ·Manuscript, Bibl. Nat. , Biblia Sacra.DATE . PAGE12th cent. 975995Lat. 6. i.Angel holds flamesAngel holds globes .Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 100 Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 100 Angel with sword Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 101Angel with sceptre . Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 101Angel with trumpet Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 102 Angel with book Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 102John Baptist, winged Lucifer before Fall .Fall of Lucifer .Sculpture, Chartres 13th cent. 108MS. , Hortus Deliciarum, Strasburg 12th cent. 109 • Miniature, Breviary of St. Louis and A.D. 1220 111Blanche of Castille, Bibl. de l'Ar- sénal, Paris.Fall of Lucifer . · Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal. , Bibl. de l'Arsenal, Paris, No. 593.A.D. 1340 112Unknown Unknown Unknown •· ·MS.Four-faced demonRiver personified Fire demon Satan and Hell Satan Persian devilEgyptian devil Turkish devilSatan, serpent- horned.The AbyssMiniature, Bibl. Nat. , Paris, TurkishEngraving, Montfaucon, Antiq. Ex.Engraving, Montfaucon, Antiq. Ex.• 113 • 115 117Miniature, Missal of Poitiers 119Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa 120 122123 124MS. Bibl. Nat. , Paris, Coll. Duc circ. 1200 d'Anjou.125MS. Bibl. Nat. , Paris. Lat. 6 127 Devil as Professor Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal. , Bibl. de l'Arsénal, Paris, No. 593.1340 128Temptation of St. Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa 129Paphnutius Juliana and Devil Miniature, unknown 1340 130Demons on tomb of Sculpture, church of St. Denis, Paris . A.D. 1220 131Dagobert.Devils as men Devil as Satyr Painted glass, Chartres 133Ivory carving, Tournus · 134Apocalyptic dragon Temptation, serpent Painted glass, St. Nizier, Troyes .Sculpture, sarcophagus, Vatican137 139and Adam.Devil, vampireTwo-headed serpentTemptation of EveMiniature, Bibl. Nat. , Bible Historiée,Paris, No. 9561, fol. 8".Miniature, Bibl. Nat. , Bible Historiée,Paris, No. 9561, fol. 8.Devil on helmet of Miniature, Initial P.1391340 140Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa . 1340 141• · 142 Goliath.DevilDrinking devil .Sculpture, Amiens Sculpture, Amiens ··• 143 1340 144438 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. II.TITLE. NATURE AND ORIGIN. DATE. PAGEExorcism of devil . Miniature, MS. , Bibl. de Chartres,1380.1340 145Lucifer on seal . Miniature, MS. , Bib. de Chartres, 1380 1340 147Death demonLucifer's handwriting.Impiety .CovetousnessDeath, Thanatos Death-bed scene Death as woman Death as woman Death as rider Death as riderDeath and soul .Miniature, MS. , Bibl. de Chartres,1380.1340 148• • Sculpture, Amiens cathedral 1340 149· Miniature, Rom. des trois Pèlerinages, circ. 1330 150Bibl. St. Geneviève, Paris.Sculpture, temple of Diana of Ephesus Miniature, Miss Twining •B.C. 154 B.C. 156Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa . circ. 1330 158 159 160 161• Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa . circ. 1330 162Fresco, Campo Santo, Pisa . circ. 1330 164 Satan of Job Fresco, Francis da Volterra, Campo circ. 1330 Santo, Pisa.165Ladder of soul ·Death as king Death as Ecce hom*o Death and fool .Death and shepherd Death as a skeletonThe soul, Psyche Soul as butterflyThe soul, Psyche Soul of St. Stephen Soul borne by angels Souls weighed by Michael.Souls weighed by Hermes.Hermes lifts soul from grave.Hermes leads soul to Charon.Michael slays dragon Michael slays dragonMichael and seven- headed dragon.Adoration of Cross .Descent into Hell Christ overcomes hu- man-headed serpentGem, Coll. , M. Badeigts de la Borde.Onyx gem, King's Horace Gem .Sculpt. (ancient), collection, P. Ras- casius di Bigarris.Mosaic, St. Mark's, Venice .Sculpture, ch. of St. Trophimus, Arles.Miniature, Greek Menologium of Basil.Miniature, MS. , M. Dupasquier, col.,Lyons.Vase painting, Duc de Luynes.Onyx gem, coll. , Duke of OrleansGem, Uzielli collectionMiniature, Amiens .Miniature, Abbey of PrumeMiniature, Psalterium cum figuris,Bibl. Nat. , Paris.Ancient gem, lapis lazuli, Alexandria .Miniature, Bibl. Pauperum Ancient gem, C. W. King, Report Cambridge Antiq. Soc. v. 82167 169 169 170 171 172 174 1756th cent. 176 177 · 178 A.D. 1300 179· · 180• 181· 181· · A.D. 1197 182· · circ. 993, 184 1001 1851st. Xtian 196age.Mediæval 198· • · 201LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -VOL. II. 439TITLE.Hercules overcomesthe human-headedhydra.Daniel among lionsOstrich delivers its young.Mass of Regulus,Bishop of Arles.Burial of VirginNATURE AND ORIGIN.Ancient coin, C. W. King, Report Cambridge Ant. Soc. v. 82.DATE. PAGE202Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal. , Library of Lord Coleridge.A.D. 1350 210Miniature, Spec. Hum. Sal., Library of Lord Coleridge.A.D. 1350 215239Sculpture, Notre Dame, Paris . • · 13th cent. 241Miniature, Bibl. Nat. , Paris, Lat. 14th cent.5086.1Mary.INDEX.ABATEMENTS of honour, i. 78 n.Abelard, i. 427; his denial of thespirit of fear in Christ, i. 487;on the relations of the DivinePersons of the Trinity, ii . 10 Abgarus, king of Edessa, and thetraditional portrait of Christ, i.245Achilles, the shield of, and the snow-white rose of the Divina Commedia,' ii. 249 Ahriman, contest between Ormuzdand, i . 464; the Persian spirit of darkness, ii. 122Allegorical beings, nimbus of, i. 83,154; figures, Impiety, ii. 149;Covetousness, 150 Allegories and myths, difference between, i . 343 Amiens, cathedral of, early Christian art in the, i. 90, 101 , 104,130 n., 144, 149 , 445 , ii . 143, 283 n.,328 n. , 383 n. , 445; library of, i.501Angels, nimbus of, i . 66, ii. 96; as- sisting Godthe Father at the crea- tion, ii. 14; iconography of, ii . 85;creation of, ii. 85; method of treatment in art, ii . 85; St. JchnDamascene's opinion ofthe period of their creation, ii . 87; St. Jerome's, ii . 87; Dante's, ii. 87; in- corporeal nature of, ii. 88; angels in Ezekiel, ii. 89, 91 , 96; Dante's description of, ii . 89; angels of Giotto and other painters, ii. 90;representation of, by Italians, ii .92; by artists in the West, ii . 94;costume of, ii . 96; small horn or cross on the brow of, ii. 97; St.Dionysins' classification of the angelic hierarchy and their syn- bols, ii. 98, 265; hierarchy ofangels at Chartres, ii . 99; in the convent of Ivirôn, ii . 101; wingless, ii. 93, 154, 256; of Botticelli,ii. 256Apocalypse, the seven gifts of the Spirit in the, i . 481; the dragon of the, ii. 123; order amongst the devils of the, ii. 137; howto represent the, ii. 336Apostles, nimbus of the, i. 72;figured under the form of lambs,i. 327Arezzo, fresco at, ii. 186 Arles, ch. of St. Trophimus at, i.502. ii. 177 Art, influence of social life and ideas on works of, i. 228Athos, Mt, i . 76n.; government of, i.285n.; the Satan of, ii. 121; early Christian art in convents, &c. , of,i. 30, 36 n., 58 n. , 60 n. , 284, 388,453, ii. 106, 121 , 245 , 281 n. , 305 n.,322 n. , 330, 342 n. , 345 n. , 376 n.,383 n., 391 n., 392 n.Aureole: restriction of the term,i . 25; derivation of the word, i .107; nature, i . 107; other names,i . 108; form of the aureole, i.110, 115, 137; its field , i. 111,115; the, characteristic of the Deity, i. 111 , 121; use of thestool supporting the feet of God i. 113; variations in form, i. 118;applicationof, i. 121; ofthe Virgin Mary, i. 121; degradation of the,i. 123; history of, i. 126; colour of,i. 163; not always symbolic, i. 165INDEX. 441Auvergne, churches of, decoratedin fifth century, ii . 191 Auxerre, cathedral of, fresco- paint- ing of the triumph of Christ in the, i. 308; early Christian artin the, i. 109, 335 n. , 462, 500 n. , ii.336 n.BEAUCE, Cathedral of, i. 18 Beauvais, i. 71 n. , 212, ii . 383 Behemoth, the, of Job, ii. 123, 128 Benediction, forms of, i . 406; the Greek, i . 407; the Latin, i. 408 'Bible Historiale,' i. 7, 9' Biblia Pauperum, ' the, ii . 202;St. Ansgar its supposed author,ii . 202; its plan, ii. 203; rarity of MS. copies of, ii . 203; translation ofthe, ii. 403; the annuncia- tion, ii. 103 the nativity, ii.404; adoration of the Magi, 1i.404; the purification, ii. 405;the flight into Egypt, ii. 405;the HolyFamily in Egypt, ii . 406;murder of the Innocents, ii . 407;return from Egypt, ii . 408; John baptizing Christ, ii. 408; temp- tation of Christ, ii . 409; the raising of Lazarus, ii. 410; the transfiguration, ii. 410; Mary Magdalene at the feet of Christ,ii. 411; Christ's entry into Jerusalem, ii. 412; Christ driving the money-changers out of the temple, ii. 412; Judas Iscariot betrays Christ, ii. 413; Judas receiving the thirty pieces ofsilver, ii . 414; the Last Supper,ii. 414; Christ leaving his disci- ples in Gethsemane, ii. 415;Christ in the garden of Olives, ii.416; Judas betraying Christ with a kiss, ii. 416; Pilate wash- ing his hands, ii. 417; Christ crowned with thorns, ii . 418;bearing his cross, ii. 418; on the cross, ii. 419; the crucifixion and the soldier with a spear, ii.420; entombment of Christ, ii .420; the descent into hell, ii.421; the resurrection, ii. 412;the three Maries and the angel at the tomb, ii . 422; Christ appearing to Mary Magdalene in the garden, ii. 423; to his disci ples, ii. 423; the incredulity of Thomas, ii. 424; the ascension,ii. 425; descent of the HolyGhost, ii . 425; coronation of theVirgin, ii. 426; the last judg- ment, ii. 427; hell, ii . 426;Christ with the souls of the blessed in his mantle, ii. 428;the reward of the righteous, ii.429Blessing, howto represent the hand in, ii . 395Bossuet, ii. 8Botticelli, Sandro, his painting of angels, ii. 256Bourges, cathedral of, early Chris- tian art in the, i . 69, 319 n., 370,ii. 209 n.Brou, Notre Dame de, stained win- dow, representing the triumph of Christ in the, i. 310. 417; early Christian art in, i . 95 n., 102 ,318 n., 323, 417Browning, Mrs. Barrett, on Gregory Nazianzen, ii . 236 n.Buffamalco, ii. 86Burton, Sir F., description of the winged Thanatos in the British Museum, ii . 153, 255Byzantine Guide to Painting,' ii.189; its date, ii. 189; compiled by Dionysius, ii. 190; copies of the, and its growth, ii. 190; the scheme of the, ii. 193; the scenesin chronological order, ii. 194;translation of second part of the,ii. 263; the nine choirs of angels,ii . 265; fall of Lucifer, ii. 266;how to represent scenes in the lives of Adam and Eve, ii. 266;of Cain and Abel, ii. 267; ofNoah, ii 268; of Abraham, ii.269; of Jacob, ii. 271; of Joseph,ii 271; of Moses and Aaron, ii.273; of Joshua, ii. 276; of Gideon, ii. 277; of Samson, ii.277; of Samuel, ii . 278; of David, ii. 279; of Solomon, ii.442 INDEX.280; of Elijah, ii. 280; of Elisha,ii. 282; of Isaiah, ii . 283; of Jeremiah, ii. 284; of Daniel, ii.284; of Jonah, ii. 286; of Job,ii. 287; the Patriarchs, ii. 288;the sons of Jacob, ii. 289; otherancestors outside the genealogy,ii. 291; holy women of the OldTestament, ii. 291; the holy Prophets, ii. 292; other prophe- cies, ii . 294; the philosophers of Greece who have spoken of the incarnation of Christ, ii. 297;the tree of Jesse, ii. 298; the festivals of the Lord and other works and miracles of Christaccording to the Holy Gospel, ii.299; the Holy Passion, ii. 314;the parables. ii. 322; the Apo- calypse, ii . 336; the second coming of our Lord, ii . 345; the feasts ofthe Divine Mother, ii. 347; the twenty- four stations of the Divine Mother, ii . 352; the faces of thetwelve holy Apostles, ii . 356;the four evangelists, ii. 356; the exaltation of the cross, ii . 357;the seven holy synods, ii. 358;the miracles of the principal saints, ii . 361; of the archangel Michael, ii . 361; of the Har- binger, ii. 362; of St. Peter, ii.366; of St. Paul, ii. 367; of St. Nicholas, ii. 368; of St. George,ii. 369; of St. Catherine, ii . 371;of St. Anthony, ii. 372; how to representthe seven martyrs of the year, ii. 374; allegories and moralities, ii. 378; how to paint the walls of a church, ii. 383;the narthex, ii. 389; the fountain,ii. 390; the refectory, ii. 391; acruciform church with four vaults,ii. 393; a church roofed with abarrel vault, ii . 393; the method by which we have to paint theholy images, ii. 394; the face and body of our Lord, ii. 394;of the mother of God, ii. 395;how to represent the hand inblessing, ii . 395; inscriptions for Holy Trinity, ii. 395|66CHARON, the Etruscan, ii. 155 Chartres, cathedral of, arrangement of statues on the outside of, i. 14;hierarchy of angels in, ii. 99;figures of, arranged in the order of the Speculum Universale,'ii. 221; the ' Mirror of Nature,' ii.222; the Mirror of Doctrine,' ii.223; the Historical Mirror,' ii.225; early Christian art in, i. 16,17, 18, 55 n. , 56n. , 69, 71 , 84, 88n. ,91, 100, 109, 112, 117, 123, 125,154 n. , 175, 177, 181 , 195, 227,319n. , 322, 371 n. , 380 n. , 406, 448,485, 487, 488, 502, ii. 15, 74, 85,86, 92, 99, 132, 221 , 230 , 337 n.,377 n.Chosroes, king of the Persians,visit to Jerusalem, ii. 37; hismimicry of the Trinity, ii. 38;death, ii. 38Christ: as the conqueror of death,ii. 168; legend of footprints of,on the Mount of Olives, ii. 217.See also: God the Son.Christian Scheme, iconography of the, ii. 188; the Byzantine Guide to Painting,' ii . 189, 226; its scheme, ii. 193; early systems of iconography, ii. 194, 226; the ' Mirror of Human Salvation,' ii.196, 226; its scheme, ii. 197; the' Biblia Pauperum,' ii. 202, 206;St. Ansgar its supposed author,ii. 202; its plan, ii. 203Christianity and imitative art, i. 1Church, the, likened to a dove, i. 455Churches, form of eastern, i. 377;of western, i . 378; plan of, re- vealed in visions, &c. , i. 381; how to paint the walls, &c. , of, ii. 383Circle, emblematic of God, ii. 45;use of by Dante and Homer, ib.249, 250Circles, three intersecting, used as a type of the Trinity, ii. 45Classification, passion for, of know- ledge in the middle ages, i. 8, 9Codrus, king of Athens, voluntary sacrifice of, ii. 214Coleridge, Lord, manuscript in library of, 206, 210, 215INDEX. 443Costa, Jean, ii. 206 n.Covetousness, female figure symbo- lising, ii. 148, 150 Creation, angels assisting God the Father at the, ii. 14 Crescent, adoption of the, by the Turks, i. 159 n.Crescenzio's triumph of death, ii.161Cross: use of the, in the nimbus of Christ, i. 40; form of the arms of,i . 45; inscription of the letters ówv, i. 45; the, confined to the nimbus of the Deity, i. 47; the cross a symbol of Christ, i. 367;history of the, i. 366; virtue of the, i. 370; enthusiasm for the,and its form, i. 372; dedication of churches to the, i. 373;varieties of the cross, i. 374; 1.the ' tau, i. 374; 2. the crosswith a top and one transverse bar, i. 374; its different forms, i.375; the Greek cross, i. 375; theRoman, i. 376; both types com- mon to both churches, i. 376;form of eastern churches, i . 377;of western churches, i . 378; 3.the cross with double branches, i.380, 387; English churches inthis form, i. 380; 4. the cross with three transverse bars, i. 382;free crosses, i. 384; the cross of the Passion, i. 384; the Resurrec- tion cross, i. 385; varieties of heraldic crosses, i. 386; forms ofintertwined crosses, i. 387; ani- mals represented at the foot of crosses in Greek churches, i. 390;crosses formed by the monogram of Christ, i. 392; other forms, i.393; allegorical ornaments oncrosses, i. 395; inscriptions on, i.396; inhabited cross describedby Dante, i. 399; the sign of the cross, i. 405, 414; instructionsfrom early Fathers, i. 405; form of benediction, i. 406; the Greekbenediction, i . 407; the Latin, i.408; forms of signing the cross,i. 409, ii. 11; the colour of the cross, i. 412; of the historicalcross, i . 412; of the ideal cross,i. 413; the triumph of the cross,i. 414; adoration of the cross, ii.196Cupola, adoption of the, by the Turks, i. 159Cyrus, vision of Astyages before the birth of, legend of, ii. 211DAGOBERT, legend of the death of,ii. 132Daniel, bishop of Lacedæmon, ii. 11 Dante, description of the triumph of Christ, i. 317; on the creationof angels, ii. 87; description of angels, ii. 89; of Lucifer, ii. 113;influence of, upon medieval art,ii. 250, 258; quoted, i . 137, 138,139, 144, 145, 166, 224, 233, 237 n.,401, 457, 467, ii. 5, 9 n., 47, 217,248, 259Death, iconography of, ii. 153;Christian images of, borrowed from the Græco- Latin polytheism,ii. 153; statue of Thanatos, ii.153; figure of the Etruscan Charon, ii . 155; Death depictedby Christians as a skeleton, ii.156; Orcagna's treatment of Death, ii. 157; Death aswoman, Petrarch's, ii. 159; Death as a rider, ii. 161; Crescenzio'striumph of Death, ii. 161;Orcagna's illustrations of the 'Three Deaths and the ThreeLives,' ii. 164; the chariot of,ii. 166; death of man figured in the Ladder of the Soul'sSalvation,' ii. 166; the Moral Ladder, ii. 167; Christ as the conqueror of, ii . 168; Death as acrowned skeleton, ii. 169; Death and the Fool, ii. 169; the Dance of Death, ii. 171Devils, iconography of, ii. 109;Lucifer before his fall, ii. 109;the fall of Lucifer, ii. 110, 265;Dante's description of Lucifer, ii.113; personification of physical evils by the ancients, ii. 114; of earthquakes by the Scandina- vians, ii. 115; the monster of the444 INDEX.Tarasque, ii . 116; the fire-demon; | Egyptian idols, legend of the fall ii. 116; legend of St. Remi andthe fire at Rheims, ii. 116; the Devil in Missal of Poitiers ii. 118;painting of the Devil in the Campo Santo, Pisa, ii. 118; inthe convent of St. Gregory, Mt. Athos, ii. 121; Ahriman, ii. 122;Egyptian devils, ii. 122, 123; the dragon of the Apocalypse, ii.123; the Behemoth of Job, ii.123, 128; the genius of evil inthe west, ii. 121: represented as a beggar, ii. 126; as a monk or doctor, ii, 127, 259; as a splen- didly dressed woman, ii. 129,261; as a holy angel, ii . 129; in human form, ii. 132; the type of the demon indicative of thecountry and epoch, ii. 132;nomenclature of the devil, ii. 135;in the east, ii. 135; in the west,ii. 136; order amongst the devils of the Apocalypse, ii. 137; the serpent in the temptation of Adam and Eve, ii. 139; the demons of the New Testament,ii . 142; belief in the devil during the Middle Ages, ii. 144; humor- ous conceptions of, ii. 144; bull of Innocent VIII. , ii. 144; exor- cism, ii. 145; menbegotten of the Devil, ii. 145; seal of Lucifer, ii.146; figures symbolising impiety and covetousness, ii. 148; demons of floods, ii . 259Didron, M., referred to, ii. 84, 100,107, 188; 189, 225, 239, 249Dove, the, representing, the Holy Spirit, i. 451, 459; the Church,i. 455Drama, object of the religious, i. 6;influence of the, on iconography,ii. 233, 242; St. Francis' celebration ofthe nativity of Christ,ii. 233; influence of games and dramas on Greek art, ii. 234Durandus, G., i. 274, 329, 336, 371 ,375, 384, 408, 436, ii. 29EASTLAKE, Lady, ii. 188, 176 Editor's note, ii 84of, before the child Christ, ii.214, 301Encyclopædias, passion for making,in the middle ages, i. 8, ii . 220;superiority of Vincent de Beau- vais', i. 17Epigonation, the, i. 60, 61 Evangelists, nimbi of the evan- gelical symbols, i. 87; symbols of the, i . 318, ii. 267 Eve, creation of, i. 218Evil, trinity of, ii. 22 Exorcism, ii. 145FERGUSON, Sir Samuel, sonnet on Paul Veronese, ii. 219Ferrara, cathedral, i . 205 Festivals of the church, inscrip- tions for the, ii. 399Figures and symbols, difference between, i. 342, 351Fish, the, a figure of Jesus Christ,i. 344, 351Fletcher, Giles, description of the Tempter, ii. 128; his opening scene of Christ's temptation, ii.219Footprints of bull indicating ground plan of churches, i . 382 Footprints of Christ, legend of, on the mount of Olive's, ii. 217Freiburg in Breisgau, i. 75, 429,491 , 492; ii. 328GLORY, restriction of the term, i.25; origin of the word, i. 129;application of the term, i. 130;nature ofthe glory, i. 131; light embodied in painting or sculp- ture, i. 131; illustrations from the Hindoos, i. 132; from the Greeks, i. 132; from the modern Persians, i . 133; from Virgil, i.134; from the Christian shrines i. 134; from the Apocalypse, i.136; from Dante's Paradiso,' i.137, 144; from the New Testa- ment, i. 139; representations in rose-windows, i . 143; its origin and native country, i. 146; use amongst the Hindoos, i. 146;INDEX. 445amongst the Egyptians, i. 146;amongst the Greeks and Romans,i. 147; origin in the east, i. 149,151; borrowed by the Christian religion, i. 150; at first not given to holy persons, i. 151; characterof the glory, i. 153 Gnosticism, influence of, on Chris- tian arts, i. 191, 197 Gnostics, hatred borne by the, to Jehovah, i. 187, 243; earliestportraits of Christ made by, i.243; gem, i. 36 God, nimbus of; see Nimbus.God the Father, i. 167; most frequently manifested in the OldTestament, i . 167; represented by a small part of his person, i .170, 179; but generally by entire portraits of Christ, i. 170; therank assigned to him frequently inferior to that of the Son, i. 180,183; causes of this treatment, i .187; the hatred borne by the Gnostics to Jehovah, i. 187; thedread then prevalent of making an idol, i. 192; the supposed identity between Father and Son,i. 194; the incarnation of theSon, i. 195; the difficulty in representing God the Father, i .197; the absence of any visible manifestation of, i . 198; portraits of, i. 201; represented at first by a hand alone, i . 201; then by aface issuing from a cloud i. 211;with features slightly differing from the Son, i . 215; lastly, by aface and figure with distinctive features, i . 216; characteristicattributes of, i. 221; a hand ex- tended from clouds, i. 221; aglobe of the world, i. 222; trian- gular or lozenge- shaped nimbus,i. 222, 232; age, i. 223; as pope,emperor, or king, i. 223; idealtreatmeant by Italian artists, i.229; his name inscribed in atriangle, i . 231; no special festival in honour of, ii. 29God the Son; most frequently manifested in the New Testament, i. 167; represented instead of God the Father, as creator, i.171; as all-wise, i . 178; frequently more honoured in early monuments than God the Father,i. 180, 183; causes of this treatment, i . 187; portraits of, i . 204,212, 214, 215, 217, 219, 239;honoured above the other personsof the Trinity, i. 234; in the' Gloria,' i. 235; with the title of Our Lord,' i . 238; history ofthe portraits of, i . 242; causes of their number, i. 242; earliest portraits made by Gnostics, i.243; miraculous images, i. 245 ,description of his appearance byLentulus, i. 246; by St. John Damascene, i. 247; by St. Anschaire, i. 248; evidence from monuments, i. 248; growing age of the figure of, with the progressof Christianity, i. 249; successive divestment of drapery from the figure of the crucified, i . 260;Michelangelo's Christ in the lastjudgment, i. 261; portraits from the period of the Renaissance to the present day, i. 263; reaction against the materiality of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,i. 263; the beauty or ugliness of Christ, i. 264; view of the African church, i. 264; of the Latin church, i. 265; of Christian artists, i. 266; portraits, neither beautiful nor ugly, i . 266; de- scription of Christ by Tertullian,i. 268; by St. Cyril of Alexandria,i. 268; presence or absence of the beard in figures of Christ, i.268; archæological signs charac- teristic of our Saviour, i. 278;bare feet, i. 279; triangular aureole, i. 283; cruciform nimbusand monograms, i . 287; inscrip- tion of his sayings, i. 289; presence of seven doves symbolical of the spirits of God, i. 291; of actions in the life of Christ, i.291; the triumph of Christ, i.292; as treated in Greece, i . 293;446 INDEX.in the west, i. 294; the pilgrim- age of Christ in the Romantdes trois Pèlerinages,' i. 294;Greek representations of Christ after his return to heaven, i. 305;fresco-painting in the cathedral of Auxerre, i. 308; stained win- dow in the Notre- Dame de Brou,i. 310; Dante's description in the 6' Purgatorio,' i. 317; Jesus Christ as a lamb, i . 318; St. John theBaptist carrying the Lamb of God, i. 321; the Lamb of Goddepicted as a ram in the cathedral at Troyes, i . 325; decree of Justinian II. prohibiting the useof the lamb as a symbol of Christ,i. 332; effect of the decree, i.333; the Lamb of God in theApocalypse, i. 333; representa- tion of Christ and the symbolic lamb on the same cross, i. 336;Jesus as thegood shepherd, i . 337 treatment of the subject, i. 338;its popularity, i. 341; Jesus Christ as lion, i . 341; Jesus figured bythe fish, i. 344, 351; evidence from monuments, i . 345; testimony of authors, i. 347; anagram from the word IXOTE, i. 347;the fish not always a figure ofChrist, i . 352; often a sign of trade when carved on monuments,i. 353; the natural explanation in such cases to be the firstadopted, i . 361; epithets for God the Son, ii. 396Gospel of Christ, inscriptions on the, ii. 397 Graal, history of the, i. 270 Gregory Nazianzen, ii . 236 Gregory of Tours, i. 425, 459, ii. 191 Gregory the Great, pope, inspired by the Holy Spirit, i . 447 Greek art, influence of games and dramas on, ii. 234HERRADE, i . 50, 207, 430, 455, 457,465, 469, ii . 8, 34, 63, 167 Hercules and human- headed serpent ii. 201Holy Ghost; portraits of the, i.216, 219, 220; history of the, i417; definition of the, i. 418;Jehovah the God of strength, i.418; Jesus the God of love, i.419; the Holy Ghost the Godof intelligence, i. 420; Charle- magne's hymn to the, i. 421;the, also possessing the attributes of the other persons of theTrinity, i. 422; the office of the,i. 424; evidence from Scripture,i. 424; testimony from legends,i. 426; from history, i. 427; from art, 428; represented as the cre- ator of sciences, i. 429; worship of the, i. 437; churches and monasteries dedicated to the, i.437; manifestations of the, i.440; scriptural, i. 440; legendary,i. 443; at the coronation of theVirgin Mary, i. 444; legend of St. Joseph, i. 446; the, inspiring Gregory the Great, i. 447; St. Jerome, i. 448; St. Theresa, i.449; directing the actions of kings, i. 449; as a dove em- broidered on a standard, i. 450;the Holy Spirit as a dove, i. 60,120, 204, 451; a bird used to express rapidity, i . 451; therefore mind or spirit, i. 451; the dove selected as the image ofthe, i , 459; in Scripture, i.459; in legends, i. 459; the colour of the Holy Ghost repre- sented as a dove, i. 461; as seenin the vision of Theutram, i. 463;the Holy Ghost as man, i. 467;late introduction and short duration of the type, i. 467; papalbull prohibiting its use, i. 468;varying age of the human form of the figure, i. 469; neglect of the use of the figure, i. 473;qualities peculiar to the Holy Ghost, i. 474; the seven spirits in Isaiah, i. 474; their order, i. 476;testimony of their order on mon- uments to the social condition ofthe period and country, i. 477;wisdom the highest gift, i. 479;Rhaban Maur's arrangement ofINDEX. 447the seven gifts, i, 480; the sevengifts in the Apocalypse, i . 481;arrangement in manuscripts, i.482; omission of one or more, i.485; Abélard's omission of thespirit of fear in Christ, i. 487;colour and size of the seven doves,i. 490; chronological iconography of the Holy Ghost, i. 493; theattributes of the Holy Ghost, i.496; character of the nimbus, i.496; its frequent absence, i . 497;heresies against the Holy Ghost,i. 499; honour paid to the, i.499; omission of the, in picturesof Pentecost, i. 501; in represen- tations of the Trinity, i. 502;denial of the divinity of the, i.506Holy Ghost, order of the, i. 427 'Hortus Deliciarum, ' the, i. 50 n.,72 n., 207, 430, 456 n . , ii. 9, 34 n. ,42, 109Hugo de St. Victor, ii. 220 Hymettus, church on, i. 70, ii. 107IMAGES, the number of, in French churches, i. 1; images andfigures in churches nearly all religious, i, 2; defence of, by thecure of St. Nizier, i. 2; by Pope Sixtus, i. 3; by St. Benedict Biscop, i . 3; by St. John Da- mascene, i. 3, ii. 397; by theSynod of Arras, i. 4; by Bishop Geoffrey, i . 4; by St. Paulinus,i. 4; Byzantine Guide on the worship of, ii . 394Impiety, female figure symbolising,ii. 148Innocents, murder of the, ii. 407Ivirôn, angelic hierarchy at, ii.101-106; the portico, ii. 232JAMESON, Mrs., quoted, ii. 107, 177,184, 188Janus, representations of, ii. 23 Joan of Arc, i. 461Judas Iscariot, nimbus of, i. 156,164; betrayal of Christ, ii. 413,416Judgment, Last, representations ofthe, i . 253, 254, 256, 257, ii. 70,126, 228Justinian II. , decree of, prohibiting the use of the lamb as a symbolof Christ, i . 332; representative of Justice, ii. 251; Dante on, ii.251; on capital in ducal palace,Venice, ii. 251KING, C. W. on gems and coins, ii.155, 171 , 172, 174, 181, 196, 201,202Kings, the Holy Ghost directing the actions of, i. 449LAMB, the, the symbol of Christ,sometimes encircled with a cruciform nimbus, i. 56; symbolic ofChrist, i . 318; of prophets and apostles, i . 326; of the faithful,i. 328; of the actors in various biblical scenes, i. 330 Laon, cathedral of, i. 18, 155 n., ii.328 n.Lazarus, raising of, ii. 410 ' Legenda Aurea,' the, referred to,i. 2, 8, 9, 68, 367, 370, 382, 397,444, ii . 6, 183, 308, 365, 368 n.Lentulus, description of the appear- ance of Christ, i. 246Liberius, pope, nimbus of, i. 77 Limoges, ii . 336Lion, the, the symbol of Christ,sometimes encircled with a cruciform nimbus, i. 56; the symbol of St. Mark, i. 341; of Christ,i. 341Liturgy, Greek, i . 307, ii. 230Living persons, nimbus of, i. 76 Loki, the Scandinavian god of evil,ii. 115London, National Gallery, ii. 93,108, 256, 258MARCELLINA, i . 244 Martyrs of the year, how to repre- sent the, ii. 374 Mary Magdalene, at the feet of Christ, ii. 411; with Christ in the garden, ii. 423Mary, Virgin, nimbus of the, i. 71;aureole of the, i. 121; coronation448 INDEX.of the, i. 444, ii. 426; endowedwith the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, i . 491; the Trinity repre- sented in the womb of the, ii. 59;how to represent the feasts of the,ii. 347; the twenty-four stationsof the, ii. 352; physiognomy ofthe, ii . 395; epithets for the, ii.396, 398; the annunciation, ii.403; the purification, ii. 405;Mirror of, 208Maya, nimbus of, i. 40 Medieval art and the antique, ii.244; continued use of heathen images in Christian art, ii. 244;in illuminated manuscripts, ii.245; in the monasteries of Mount Athos, &c. , ii. 245; in the churchof St. Michael, Ticino, ii. 245;in the pavement of Sienacathedral, ii. 246 Melchizedeck, nimbus of, i. 69, ii.270, 414Mercury and St. Michael, corres- pondence between, in Pagan and Christain religions, ii. 179, 180,181 , 262Michael, dedication of rocks to, ii.181; miracles of, 361 Michelangelo, portrait of Christ in the Last Judgment,' i. 261; useof the emblem of three intersecting circles as a seal, ii. 49; inspired by Dante, ii . 251; his Mirror of Human Salvation ' in the SistineChapel, ii. 226 Miniature painting, early practice of, ii. 206; the origin of some Italian schools of artists, ii . 207;Byzantine miniatures on wood,ii. 209Miracles, how to represent the, ofChrist, ii. 303; of the principal saints, ii. 361 ' Mirror of Human Salvation, ' the,ii. 196; its scheme, ii . 197;correspondence with Milton's 'Paradise Regained,' ii . 200;correspondence of Christian with heathen types, ii. 201; MS.copies, ii. 204; mythologicallegends in the, ii. 211; legendsfrom Pagan mythology used as types of Christ and the Virgin,ii . 211; vision of Astyages before the birth of Cyrus, ii. 211;offering of the golden table inthe temple of the sun-god, ii .211; Semiramis, ii . 212; thechoice of Moses, ii. 212; fall ofthe Egyptian idols before thechild Christ, ii. 214; voluntary sacrifice of Codrus, king ofAthens, ii. 214; myth of the ostrich delivering her young onefrom a vase, ii . 215; similarlegends, ii. 216; the vengeance of queen Tomyris on the deadbody of Cyrus, ii. 217; foot- prints of Christ on the mount of Olives,ii. 217; Universal Mirror,' i. 8,ii. 221Monk, how to represent the life of the true, ii. 378Monuments, figures on early Chris- tian, denoting trades, i. 352 Moon, nimbus of the, i. 86 Moses, choice of the child, legends of the, ii. 212Mystery plays, ii . 233; St. Francis'celebration of the nativity ofChrist, ii . 233; at Ammergau,ii. 235; Mary's Lament,' ii.236; St. Avitus' play on the fall of Adam, ii. 237; other plays, ii.237; the ' Acts of the Apostlesand St. Dionysius the Areopagite,' ii. 239; representation in a miniature from this play, ii.239; medieval stage directions,ii . 240Myths and allegories, difference between, i. 343NAMATIUS, bishop, tomb of, ii. 191 Nimbus, the, used to denote a holyperson, i. 22; its importance in Christian art, i. 22; restriction of the term to that encircling thehead, i. 24; definition of the, i.25; etymology and meaning of the word, i . 25; form of the,28; difference in form in Christianand Pagan iconography, i. 34;INDEX. 449application of the, i. 37; ordi- narily the attribute of divinity, i.37; exceptions, i . 37; nimbus of God, i. 38; distinguished by intersecting bars, i. 38; that of Christ sometimes by a cross, i . 40;at first simple and undecorated ,i . 50; the hand of God theFather sometimes encircled by acruciform nimbus, i . 55; generally round, i . 57; sometimes triangular or square, i . 58; the triangular form retained as anemblem of the Trinity, i. 58;sometimes bi-triangular, i . 59;the triangular form confined tothe Deity, chiefly to God the Father, i . 59; variations of form in different countries, i . 62; thesquare form generally given to living persons, i . 63; but sometimes worn by God the Father, i .63; explanation, i . 63; orna- mentation of the field , i. 65;nimbus ofangels and saints, i . 66,ii . 96; ornamentation, i . 66;nimbus of the patriarchs, i . 68;of Melchizedeck, i . 69; of prophets, i . 69, 154; of kings, i . 69;of St. John the Baptist, i. 70; of St. Joseph, i. 71; of the VirginMary, i. 71; of the Apostles , i.72; decoration and material of the nimbus, i . 73; custom ofwriting the name or monogram of a saint on the edge, i . 74;nimbus of persons living, i. 76;inferiority of the square form, i.77; the square form peculiar to Italy, i. 79; varieties in form, i.79; hexagonal form, i . 81; nimbusof allegorical beings, i . 83, 154;of the virtues, i . 83; of the moon,i. 86; of the sun, i. 87; of the attributes of the four evangelists,i. 87; of Satan black, i . 88, 157,164; signification of the nimbus, i .89; in the east, power, i. 89, 153;in the west, holiness, i . 90, 161;inference from presence or absence of, i. 90; history of the nimbus, i.92; preference of the head overthe body, i. 92; the heads of chiefs and nobles adorned withcrowns of different degrees, i . 94;the heads of saints and martyrs with nimbi of various forms, i.96; sometimes employed bypagans, i . 96; phases in the history, i . 97; nimbus of Judas Iscariot black, i . 156, 164; of thedragon ofthe Apocalypse, i . 159;colour of the, i . 163; not always symbolic, i. 165ORANTE, origin of the type, ii. 195 Orcagna, portrait of Christ in the ' Last Judgment,' i . 261; his treat- ment of death, ii. 157; his illus- trations of the Three Deathsand Three Lives,' ii. 164Ormuzd and Ahriman, contest between, i. 464PALMIERI, Matteo, ii. 256 Parables, how to represent the, ii.322Paris, Notre Dame de, early Chris- tian art in the, i . 71, 122, 183,207, ii . 230, 241 , 320, 328 , 331;St. Denis, ii. 131 , 337; St. Gene- viève, i. 128, 217, 296, 301 , 323,454; St. Gervais, Perugino, 452Patriarchs, nimbus of the, i. 68 Pesello, Francesco di, his painting of the Trinity, ii . 255 Petrarch's Triumph of Death, ii.157, 259Philosophers of Greece, how to represent the, who have spoken ofthe incarnation of Christ, ii . 297Pisa, Campo Santo at, i . 262, 287,ii. 76, 94, 118, 120, 129, 141 , 158,159, 160, 161 , 162, 164, 165, 209Plato, his doctrine of the Trinity,ii. 1Poitiers, missal of, the devil as ruler of hell in the, ii. 118.Pope, the, represented by Dante in the form of a bird, i. 457Procession of the Holy Ghost, dor- trine of the, denied by the Greek church, ii. 72Psyche, fable of, ii. 1742450 INDEX.6RAPHAEL, his Disputà,' referred | St. Dionysius the Areopagite, defi6to, i. 64, 74 , 104, 230; frescoes of,in the Vatican, ii. 229; subject of Byzantine origin, the Mys- tagogia, ' ii. 230; the Commu- nion in Heaven, ' ii. 230 Ravenna, i . 340 n. , ii. 195 Ravenna, mosaic, i . 396Renaissance, the, ii. 50, 244Rhaban Maur, arrangement of the seven gifts of the Spirit, i. 480 Rheims cathedral, scenes from thelife of Christ and the Apocalypse in, ii. 225; early Christian art in, i. 17, 29 , 72, 156, 174, 177,231 , 279, 307, 323, 354, 371 , 475,ii. 225, 280, 328 , 336, 337, 340,383; Jouy, near, 281 Richard de St. Victor, definitionof Persons of Trinity, ii. 9Romant des trois Pèlerinages ,'the, i. 294 Rome, ancient basilica of St. Peter at, i 77; church of St. Cæcilia at, i . 76; San Giovanni in Lat- erano, i. 64, 65, 82; Sta. MariaNova, mosaic, i . 206 Rose-window, i . 109, 143, ii. 249,383ST. AMBROSE, definition of the Persons of the Trinity, ii. 7St. Angilbert, design of monasteryof St. Riquier, ii. 32 St. Ansgar, description of the ap- pearance of Christ, i . 248; thesupposed author of the Biblia Pauperum,' ii. 202St. Anthony, how to represent the miracles of, ii. 372St. Augustine, definition of the Persons of the Trinity, ii. 7St. Avitus, mystery play on the fall of Adam, ii. 237 St. Benedict Biscop, defence of images, i. 3, 17St. Catherine of Alexandria, i. 428 St. Catherine, how to represent the miracles of, ii. 371St. Christopher, represented as carrying the Trinity, ii . 59 St. Cyril of Alexandria, descrip- tion of Christ, i . 268nition of fire, i. 140; classification of the angelic hierarchy and symbols, ii. 98; quoted, i . 140 St. Dunstan, i. 426, 468, ii. 40 St. Francis, celebration of the nativity of Christ, ii. 233St. George, how to represent the miracles of, ii . 369St. Jerome, inspired by the Holy Spirit, i . 448; on the period of the creation of angels, ii. 87St. John Damascene, defence of images, i . 3, ii. 397; on repre- sentations of the Deity, i. 198,242, 256; description of the ap- pearance of Christ, i. 247; onthe period of the creation of angels, ii. 87St. John the Baptist, nimbus of, i.70; depicted as carrying the Lamb of God, i. 321; his place inthe hierarchy of angels, ii . 104,107; how to represent the mira- cles of, ii. 362; inscriptions for,ii . 398; baptizing Christ, ii. 408 St. Joseph, nimbus of, i. 71; the Holy Ghost as a white doveescaping from the flowering staff of, i. 446St. Juliana, temptation of, by the devil disguised as an angel, ii. 130 St. Michael, order of, i. 427; his office at the judgment day, ii.178; dedication of rocks andhigh places to, ii. 181; his part in the Hebrew religion and Christian drama, ii . 183; struggleof, and the dragon, ii. 185 St. Nicholas, how to represent the miracles of, ii . 368Paphnutius, the temptation of, ii. 129, 261 St.St. Paul, how to represent the miracles of, ii . 367St. Paulinus, defence of images, i.4; description of a group of the Trinity, ii. 35, 39 St. Peter, how to represent the miracles of, ii. 366 St. Remi, i. 135, 150, 459; legend of, and the fire at Rheims, ii . 116INDEX. 451St. Riquier, monastery of, ii. 32 St. Sophia, legend of, and Faith,Hope, and Charity, ii. 33 St. Theresa, inspired by the Holy Spirit, i. 449 St. Thomas, legend of, ii. 5; illus- trations of the doctrine of theTrinity, ii. 5St. Thomas Aquinas, ii. 8St. Veronica, description of angels,ii. 97Salamis, church at, i. 114, 210 Salonica, i. 190, 393 Satan, nimbus of, i. 88, 157Sayce, Mr. , quoted, ii . 212, 219 Sedgeford church, ii. 59 n.Semiramis, a type of the Virgin, ii.211Shakespeare, allusions to death and the fool in, ii. 170 Siena cathedral, pavement of, ii.246Sign of the cross: see Cross.Sistine chapel, the scheme of the Old and New Law in the, ii. 226;Michelangelo's Mirror of Human Salvation ' in the, ii . 226Soul, iconography of the, ii. 173;Egyptian emblems of the, ii.173; the, according to theancients, delivered with the last breath through the mouth, ii.173; the fable of Psyche, ii. 174;the, figured as little child, ii.176; the weighing of souls in the balance at the Judgment Day the office at St. Michael, ii. 178;of Mercury in Pagan art. ii. 179 ' Speculum Humanæ Salvationis ':see'Mirror of Human Salvation.'' Speculum Universale,' i. 9, 10;excellence of its arrangement, i.10; outline of, i. 11 the orderof, followed by the sculptors of Chartres cathedral, ii. 221; the ' Mirror of Nature,' ii . 222; the' Mirror of Doctrine,' ii . 223; the" Historical Mirror,' ii . 225; date of the, ii. 225Spinello, painting of Struggle of St. Michael and the dragon, ii.186Spirits, colours of good and evil, i.465Square form of nimbus, inferiority of, i. 77Strasburg,463, ii. 328 n.cathedral of, i. 23, 74,Study of statues and effigies , i . 18 ' Summa Theologiæ, ' St. Thomas's,i. 9Sun, nimbus of the, i. 87 Symbols and figures, difference between, i . 342, 351Synods, the seven holy, how to represent the, ii. 358TARASQUE, the monster of the, ii.115, 259Tau, the, a sign, i. 370Temptation of Christ, representa- tion of the, i. 276Tertullian, description of Christ, i.268 Thanatos, statue of, ii. 153Thessaly, i . 46 Theutram, the vision of, i. 463Three, the number, mystical pro- perties of, ii. 3; sacredness of,ii. 26Time, figures of, with three faces,ii. 24Tomyris, queen, legend of the vengeance of, on the dead body of Cyrus, ii. 217 Toulouse, i . 370nTrades, figures denoting, on early Christian monuments, i . 352Triads of Britain, ii. 26Triangle, symbolic properties of the,i. 59, 61; the, used as an imageof the Trinity, ii. 41 Trinitarians, order of the, ii. 30 Trinity; history of the doctrine of the, ii. 1; vaguely known to the Pagans, ii. 1; Plato's doctrine, ii.1; Seneca's, ii. 2; ideas of theGreeks, ii . 3; mystical properties ofthe number three, ii. 3; legend of St. Thomas, ii . 5; his illustra- tions of the doctrine of theTrinity, ii. 5; definition of the Divine Persons of the, ii . 6; St. Augustine's opinions, ii. 7; doc-452 INDEX.ofof trine of St. Ambrose, ii. 7;St. Thomas Aquinas, ii. 8;Richard de St. Victor, ii . 9; of Abelard, ii. 10; the sign of the cross and the doctrine of the, ii.11; mutual relations of theDivine Persons, ii. 12; mani- festations of the, ii. 13; unsatis- factory evidence from the Old Testament, ii . 13; at the crea- tion, ii. 13; at the visit of thethree angels to Abraham, ii. 16;in the Psalms, ii. 16; Ananias,Misaël and Azarias typical of the Trinity, ii. 18; doctrine of the,in the New Testament, ii. 20;trinity of the human soul, ii . 21;trinity of evil, ii . 22; Janus, ii.23; figures of time with three faces, ii . 24; sacredness of thenumber three, ii . 26; the worship of the, ii. 28; festival of the, ii.28; order of the Trinitarians,ii. 28; churches and monasteries erected in honour of the Trinity,ii. 30; monastery of St. Riquier,ii. 32; chronological iconographyofthe, ii. 34; four periods, ii . 35;first period, of preparation, ii.35; description by St. Paulinus of a group of the Trinity, ii. 36;the, dramatised by Chosroes, ii.37; disposition of the symbols,ii. 39 second period, ii. 39;human figures of the three Persons, ii. 40; the triangleused as an image of the, ii. 41;third period, ii. 43; the, repre- sented by three heads on onebody, ii. 44; three intersecting circles a type of the, ii. 45;Dante's adoption of it, ii. 47;its use as a seal by Michelangelo,ii. 49; fourth period, ii . 49;extended use of previous figures,ii . 50; St. Christopher represented as carrying the, ii . 59;the, represented in the womb of WALDSTEIN, Dr., quoted, ii. 218, 234the Virgin, ii. 59; papal decree on representations of the, ii. 61;attributes of the, ii. 63, 255;differences in the figures, ii. 63;the three Persons at first isolated,ii . 65, 255; in contact, ii. 66fusion into one body with three heads, ii. 67; fusion of the three heads into one with three faces,ii. 67; the Father sometimesplaced on the right of the Son,ii. 68; the Holy Spirit in the centre, ii . 71; triangular nimbusround a grouped Trinity, ii. 73;head- dress of the, ii. 74; use ofthe globe in representations of the, ii . 77; inscriptions for the,ii. 80, 395; the three Persons represented with bare feet, ii.81; exceptions, ii. 81, 255 Triumph of Christ: see God the Son.Troyes, cathedral of St. Nizier de,early Christian art in, i. 154, 163,225, 325, 326, 502, ii. 70, 137,328 n., 336 n.Twining, Miss L., quoted, ii . 156,168Typhon, ii. 122, 123VATICAN, frescoes of Raphael in the, ii . 229; the ' Mystagogia,'ii. 230; the Communion in Heaven,' ii. 230; early Christian art in the, i. 41, 53, 67, 86, 98,172, 349, ii. 139Vendôme, Montorio church, i. 44 Venice, St. Mark's at, ii .; Ducal Palace at, 251; St. Mark's, 176,240Verrières sur l'Aube, church of,494Vincent de Beauvais, i. 9, 10 , ii.221, 225Virtues, nimbus of the, i. 83 Voragine, Jacques de, i. 8, 9 , 68 ii. 5, 37, 38.LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.COMPLETE CATALOGUEOFBOHN'S LIBRARIES,CONTAININGSTANDARD WORKS OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE IN THE ENGLISHLANGUAGE, ON HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, ARCHEOLOGY,THEOLOGY, ANTIQUITIES, SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, NATURAL HISTORY,POETRY, ART, FICTION, WITH DICTIONARIES, AND OTHER BOOKS OFREFERENCE. THE SERIES COMPRISES TRANSLATIONS FROM THE FRENCHGERMAN, ITALIAN, SPANISH, SCANDINAVIAN, ANGLO-SAXON, LATIN, ANDGREEK. PRICE 3s. 6d. OR 5s. PER VOLUME (WITH EXCEPTIONS).COMPLETE SET IN 677 VOLUMES, PRICE £ 149 15s.ACatalogues sent Post-free on Application.LONDON:GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET,COVENT GARDEN.1886.February, 1896.COMPLETE CATALOGUEBOHN'SOFLIBRARIES.STANDARD LIBRARY.A SERIES OF THE BEST ENGLISH AND FOREIGN AUTHORS, PRINTED IN POST 8vo.299 Vols. at 38. 6d. each, excepting those marked otherwise.Addison's Works. With the Notes of Bishop HURD, much additional matter,and upwards of 100 Unpublished Letters.Edited by H. G. BOHN. Portrait and eEngravings on Steel. In 6 vols.Alfieri's Tragedies, including those published posthumously. Translated into English Verse, and edited with Notes and Introduction, by EDGAR A. BOWRING, C.B. 2 vols.Bacon's Essays, Apophthegms, Wis- dom of the Ancients, New Atlantis, and Henry VII., with Introduction and Notes.Portrait.Ballads and Songs of the Peasantry ofEngland. Edited by ROBERT BELL.Beaumont and Fletcher, a popular Selection from. By LEIGH HUNT.Beckmann's History of Inventions,Discoveries, and Origins. Revised and enlarged. Portraits. In 2 vols Boswell's Johnson. NAPIER'S EDI- With Tour in the Hebrides and Johnsoniana. 6 vols .Bremer's (Miss) Works. Translated by MARY HOWITT. Portrait. In 4 vols.· TION.Vol. 1. The Neighbours and otherTales.Vol. 2. The President's Daughter.Vol. 3. The Home, and Strife and Peace.Vol. 4. A Diary, the H- Family, &c.Brink's Early English Literature to Wiclif. Translated by HORACE M. KENNEDY.British Poets, from Milton to Kirke WHITE. Cabinet Edition. In 4 vols.Browne's (Sir Thomas) Works.Edited by SIMON WILKIN. In 3 vols.Burke's Works. In 6 Volumes.Vol. 1. Vindication of Natural Society,On the Sublime and Beautiful, and Political Miscellanies.Vol. 2. French Revolution, &o.Vol. 3. Appeal from the New to the OldWhigs; the Catholic Claims, &c.Vol. 4. On the Affairs of India, and Charge against Warren Hastings.Vol. 5. Conclusion of Charge against Hastings; on a Regicide Peace, &c.Vol. 6. Miscellaneous Speeches,With a General Index.&c.Burke's Speeches on Warren Hast- ings; and Letters. With Index. In 2 vols.(forming vola. 7 and 8 of the works).Life. By PRIOR.revised Edition. Portrait .Burns, Lockhart's Life of.S. Douglas.New andBy W.Butler's (Bp. ) Analogy of Religion,and Sermons, with Notes. Portrait.Camoëns' Lusiad, Mickle's Transla- tion. Edited by E. R. HODGES.Carafas (The) of Maddaloni: and Naples under Spanish Dominion. Trans- lated from the German of Alfred de Reumont.Carrel's Counter Revolution in Eng- land. Fox's History and Lonsdale's Memoir of James IL Portrait.Cary's Translation of Dante's Hea- ven, Hell, and Purgatory. Copyright edition, being the only one containing Cary's last corrections and additions.Cellini (Benvenuto), Memoirs of Translated by Rosoon. Portrait.Cervantes' Galatea. Translated by GORDON GYLL.Exemplary Novels. Trans- lated from the Spanish by W. K. KELLY.Don Quixote de la Mancha.2 vols.Chaucer's Works. Edited by ROBERT BELL. New Edition, improved. With Introduction by W. W. SKEAT. 4 vols.Classic Tales, containing Rasselas,Vicar ofWakefield, Gulliver's Travels, and Sentimental Journey.Coleridge's (8. T. ) Works. -Friend.ASeries of Tegayson Morala. Politica, and Religion -Biographia Literaria, and two Lay Sermons-Aids to Reflection. By T. ASHE-Lectures on Shakespeare. By T. ASHE -Table Talk and Omniana. By T. ASHE.Miscellanies, Esthetic and Literary, to which is added the Theory of Life. By T. ASHE, B.A 18BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.Condé's Dominion of the Arabs in Spain. Translated by Mrs. FOSTER. In 3 vola.Cowper's Complete Works. Edited,with Memoir of the Author, by SOUTHEY.Illustrated with 50 Engravings. In 8 vols.Vols. 1 to 4. Memoir and Correspondence.Vols. 5 and 6. Poetical Works. Plates.Vol. 7. Homer's Iliad. Plates.Vol. 8. Homer's Odyssey. Plates.Coxe's Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough. Portraits. In 3 vois.AnAtlas of the plans of Marlborough's campaigns, 4to. 10s. 6d.History of the House of Austria. Portraits. In 4 vols.Cunningham's Lives of Eminent British Painters. New Edition by Mrs. HEATON. 3 vols.Defoe's Works. Edited by Sir WALTER SCOTT. In 7 vols.De Lolme on the Constitution ofEng- land. Edited, with Notes, by JoHN MACGREGOR.Emerson's Works. 3 vols.Foster's (John) Life and Correspond- ence. Edited by J. E. RYLAND. In 2 vols,Lectures at Broadmead Chapel. Edited by J. E. RYLAND.2 vols.Critical Essays.InEdited by J. E. RYLAND. In 2 vols.On Decision of Character.&c. &c.&c.Evils of Popular Ignorance,Fosteriana: Thoughts, Re- flections, and Criticisms. (Nearly 600 pages).Gibbon's Roman Empire. Complete and Unabridged, with Notes; including,those of Guizot, Wenck, Niebuhr, Hugo,Neander. in 7 vols.Goethe's Works, Translated into Eng- lish. In 8 vols.Vola. 1.and2. Autoblography, 20 Books;and Annals. Portrait.Vol. 3. Faust. Two Parts. By Miss SWANWICK.Vol. 4. Novels and Tales.Vol. 5. Wilhelm Meister's Apprentice- ship.Vol. 6. Conversations with Eckermann and Soret. Translated by JOHN OXENFORD.Vol. 7. Poems and Ballads, including Hermann and Dorothea, Translated by E. A. BOWRING, C.BGoethe's Works-continued.Vol. 8. Götz von Berlichingen, Tor- quato Tasso, Egmont, Iphigenia,Clavigo, Wayward Lover, and Fellow Culprits. By Sir WALTER SCOTT,Miss SWANWICK, and E. A. BOWRING,C.B. With Engraving.Vol. 9. Wilhelm Meister's Travels.Tour in Italy, 2 Parts, and Residence in Rome.Vol. 10.Vol. 11. Miscellaneous Travels. Swit- zerland, France, Mainz, Rhine Tour,Vol. 12. Early Letters.-Correspondence with Schiller.See Schiller.Goldsmith's Works. 4 vols.Greene, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson,Poems of. Edited by ROBERT BELL.With Biographies. In 1 vol.Gregory's (Dr.) Evidences, Doctrines,and Duties of the Christian Religion.Grimm's German Tales. Original Notes and Preface by A. LANG . 2 vols .Quizot's Representative Government Translated by A. R. SCOBLE.History ofthe English Reve- lution of 1640. Translated by WILLIAN HAZLITT. Portrait.- History of Civilization, Trans- lated by W. Hazlitt. In 3 zole. Portrait.Hall's (Rev. Robert) Miscellaneous Works and Remains, with Memoir by Dr. GREGORY, and an Essay on his Cha- racter by JOHN FOSTER. Portrait.Hawthorne's Tales. In 2 vols.Vol. 1. Twice Told Tales, and the Snow Imagol 2. Scarlet Letter, and the House with the seven Gables -Vol. 3, Transformation and Blithe- dale Romance.Hazlitt's Table Talk. New Ed. 1 vol.Lectures on the Comic Writers, and on the English Poets.Lectures on the Literature of the Ageof Elizabeth, and on Characters of Shakespear's Plays.Plain Speaker.Round Table, Conversations or JA". NORTHCOTE R.A.: Characteristics, To.Sketches and Essays, and Winterslow (Essays Written there). New Edition.Spirit of the Age.by W. CAREW HAZLITT.EditedHeine's Poems, complete, from the German, by A BOWRING, C.B.Hoffman's (W.) Works. The Sera- pion Brethren. Translated by Major ALEXANDER EWING.Hugo (Victor). Poems, chiefly Lyrical. Translated by various writers.b 2 19A CATALOGUE OFHungary: its History and Revolu.tions; with a Memoir of Kossuth from new and authentic sources. Portrait.Hutchinson (Colonel), Memoirs of with the Siege of Latham House.Irving's (Washington) Life and Let- ters. By his Nephew, PIERRE E. IRVING.In 2 vols.Complete Works. In 15 vols.Vol. 1. Salmagundi and Knickerbocker Portrait ofthe Author. Vol. 2. Sketch Book and Life of Gold- smith.Vol. 3. Bracebridge Hall and Abbots- ford and Newstead,Vol. 4. Tales of a Traveller and the Aihambra.Vol. 5. Conquest of Granada and Con- quest of Spain.Vols. 6 and 7. Life of Columbus and Companions ofColumbus, with a new Index. Fine Portrait.Vol. 8. Astoria and Tour in the Prairies.Vol. 9. Mahomet and his Successors.Vol. 10. Wolfert's Roost and Adven- tures of Captain Bonneville.Vol. 11. Biographies and Miscellanies.Vols. 12-15. Life ofWashington. Por- trait.James's (G. P. R.) Richard Cœur-de- Lion, King of England. Portraits. 2 vols.Louis XIV. Portraits. 2 vols.Jameson's Shakespeare's Heroines:Characteristics of Women. Moral,Poetical, and Historical.Junius's Letters, with Notes, Ad- ditions, and an Index. In 2 vols.La Fontaine's Fables. Translated from the French by E. WRIGHT, jun.Lamartine's History of the Girond- ists. Portraits. In 3 vols.Restoration ofthe Monarchy,with Index. Portraits. In 4 vols.French Revolution of 1848,with a fine Frontispiece.Lamb's ( Charles) Elia and Eliana.Complete Edition.Dramatic Poets of the Time of Elizabeth , including his Selections from the Garrick Plavs.TransMemorials and Letters of.New Edition revised and enlarged.Lanzi's History of Painting.lated by RosCOE. Portraits. In s vols.Lappenberg's Anglo-Saxon Kings.2 vols.Lessing's Dramatie Works. Com- plete, with Memoir by HELEN ZIMMERN.Portrait. 2 vols.-Laokoon. (ByBEASLEY) Ham- burg Dramatic Notes, Representation of Death(by Miss ZIMMERN), Frontispiece.Locke's Philosophical Works, con- taining an Essay on the Human Under- standing, &c., with Notes and Index by JA. ST. JOHN. Portrait. In 2 vols.Locke's Life and Letters, with Ex- sraces from his Common-Place Books, by Lord KING.Luther's Table Talk. Translated by WILLIAM HAZLITT. Portrait.Machiavelli's History of Florence,The Prince, and other Works. Portrait.Martineau's, Harriet, History of England, from 1800-15.History of the Peace, from 1815-1846. 4 vols.Menzel's History of Germany. Por- traits. In 3 vols.Michelet's Life of Luther. Translatedby WILLIAM HAZLITT.·French Revolution, with In- dex. Frontispiece.Mignet's French Revolution from 1789 to 1814. Portrait.Milton's Prose Works, with Index.Portraits. In 5 vols.Mitford's (Mary R. ) Our Village. Im- proved Ed., complete. Illustrated. 2 via.Molière's Dramatic Works. Trans- lated by C. H WALL. In 3 vols. Portrait.Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws.A new Edition revised and corrected.2vols. Portrait.Neander's Church History. Trans- lated: with General Index. In 10 vols.Life of Christ. Translated.First Planting of Christi- anity, and Antignostikus. Translated. In 2 vols.History ofChristian Dogmas.Translated. In 2 vols.Christian Life in the Early and Middle Ages, including his ' Light in Dark Places.' Translated.Ockley's History of the Saracens Revised and completed. Portrait.Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. Reprinted from the Original Edi- tion Edited by J. V. PRICHARD. 2 vols.Philip de Commines, Memoirs of containing the Histories of Louis XI. and Charles VIII, and of Charles the Bold,Duke of Burgundy. To which is added, The Scandalous Chronicle, or Secret History of Louis XI. Portraits. 2 vols.Plutarch's Lives. By G. LONG and A. STEWART. 4 Vols.Poetry of America. Selections from 100 American Poets, from 1776--1876.Edited by W. J. LINTON. Portrait.20BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.Banke's History of the Popes. Trans- lated by E. FOSTER. In 3 vols.volution.Servia and the Servian ReReynolds' (Sir Joshua) Literary Works. Portrait. In 2 vols.Richter (Jean Paul Fr.)and Autobiography. With Memoir.Flower, Fruit, and Thorn Pieces. A Novel.LevanaRoscoe's Life and Pontificate of Leo X., with the Copyright Notes, and an! Index. Portraits. In 2 vols.Life of Lorenzo de Medici,with the Copyright Notes, &c. Portrait.Bussia, History of, by WALTER K,Translated intoKELLY. Portraits. In 2 vols.Schiller's Works.English In 6 vols.Vol. 1. Thirty Years' War, and Revolt of the Netherlands.Vol. 2. Continuation of the Revolt of the Netherlands; Wallenstein's Camp; the Piccolomini; the Death of Wallenstein; and William Tell.Vol. 8. Don Carlos, Mary Stuart, Maid of Orleans, and Bride of Messina.Vol. 4. The Robbers, Fiesco, Love and Intrigue, and the Ghost-Seer.Vol. 6. Poems. Translated by EDGAR BOWRING, C.B. Vol. 6. Philosophical Letters and Es- thetical Essays.Correspondence with Goethe,translated by L. DORA SCHMITZ. 2 vols.Schlegel's Philosophy of Life and of Language, translated by A.J. W. MOR- RISON.History of Literature, An- cient and Modern.Schlegel's Philosophy of History.Translated by J. B. ROBERTSON. Portrait.Schlegel's Dramatic Translated. Portrait.Modern History.Works.Literature.Esthetic and MiscellaneousSchumann (Robt. ) His Life and Works, by AUGUST HEISSMAN. Trans- lated by A. L. ALGER.Sheridan's Dramatic Works and Life. Portrait Sismondi's Literature of the South of Europe. Translated by Roscoe. Por- traits. In 2 vols.Smith's (Adam) Theory of the Moral Sentiments; with his Essay on the First Formation of Languages.Smyth's (Professor) Lectures on Modern History. In 2 vols.Lectures on the French Re- volution. In 2 vols.Sturm's Morning Communings with God, or Devotional Meditations for Every Day in the Year.Sully, Memoirs of the Duke of, Prime Minister to Henry the Great, Portraits.In 4 vols.Taylor's (BishopJeremy) HolyLiving and Dying. Portrait Thierry's Conquest of England by the Normans. Translated by WILLIAM HAZLITT. Portrait. In 2 vols.Ulrici ( Dr.) Shakespeare's Dramatic Art. Translated by L. D. Schmitz. 2 vols.Vasari's Lives of the Painters,Sculptors, and Architects. Translated by Mrs. FOSTER. 5 vols.Wesley's (John) Life. By ROBERT SOUTHEY. New and Complete Edition.Double volume. With Portrait. 68.Wheatley on the Book of Common Prayer. Frontispiece.HISTORICAL LIBRARY.21 Vols. at 58. each.Evelyn's Diary and Correspondence.Illustrated with numerous Portraits, &c.In 4 vols.Pepys' Diary and Correspondence.Edited by Lord BRAYBROOKE. With Notes.Important Additions, including numerous Letters. Mustrated withmany Portraits.In 4 vols.Jesse's Memoirs of the Reign of theStuarts, including the Protectorate. With General Index. Upwards of 40 Portraits.In 3 vols.Jesse's Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents. 6 Portraits.Nugent's (Lord) Memorials Hampden, his Party, and Times. 12 Portraits.. ofStrickland's (Agnes) Lives of the Queens of England, from the Norman Conquest. From official records andauthentic documents, private and public Revised Edition. In 6 vols.2 vols.Life of Mary Queen of Scots.21A CATALOGUE OFCOLLEGIATE SERIES.10 Vols. at 5s. each.Carlyle's Dante. The Inferno. Trans- Herodotus, Turner's (Dawson W. lation. Text and Notes. Second Edition.Portrait.Dante. The Purgatorio. By S. DUGDALE.Dobree's Adversaria,WAGNER. 2 vols.By Prof.Donaldson's Theatre of the Greeks.Illustrated with Lithographs and nu- merous Woodcuts.Keightley's Classical Mythology.New Edition. Revised by Dr. L. SOBMITZ. With 12 plates.1Notes to. With Map, &c.Herodotus, Wheeler's Analysis and Summary of.Thucydides, Wheeler's Analysis of.New Testament (The) in Greek.Griesbach's Text, with the readings of Mill and Schols, Parallel References,a Critical Introduction and Chronologica)Tables. Two fac-similes of Greek MSS.8s. ed.; or with Lexicon, 5s. Lexicon Separately. 28.PHILOSOPHICAL LIBRARY.16 Vols, at 58. each, excepting those marked otherwise.Bacon's Novum Organum and Ad- vancement of Learning. Complete, with Notes by J. Davey M.A Bax's Manual of the History Philo- sophy. By E. BELFORT BAX.Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences.By G. H. LEWES.Draper (J. W.) A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe. By JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, M.D., LL.D. ANew Edition, thoroughly Revised by the Author. In 2 vols.Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of History. Translated by J. SIBREE, M A.Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.Translated by J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN.Prolegomena and Metaphy- sical Foundations. E. B. BAX.Logic; or, the Science of Inference.A Popular Manual. By J. DEVEY.Miller's (Professor) History Philoso- phically considered In vole 3s 6d. each.Spinoza's Chief Works. By R. H. M. ELWES. 2 vols.Tennemann's Manual of the History of Philosophy. Continued by J. B. MORELLECCLESIASTICAL AND THEOLOGICALLIBRARY.15 Vols. at 58. each, excepting those marked otherwise.Bleek (F.) An Introduction to the Old Testament . Trans. by G. H. VEN- ABLES, and Rev. E. VENABLES, Canon of Lincoln. 2 vols.Chillingworth's Religion of Pro- testants. 3s. 6d.Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History.With Notes.Hardwick's History of the Articles of Religion. With Documents from A.D. 1536 to A.D. 1616, and Illustrations from Contemporary Sources. Revised by Rev. F. PROOTER.Henry's (Matthew) Commentary on the Psalms. Numerous Illustrations.Pearson on the Creed. New Edition,With Analysis and Notes.Philo Judæus, Works of; the con- temporary of Josephus. Translated by C. D. Yonge In 4 vols.Socrates' Ecclesiastical History, in continuation of Eusebius. With the Notesof Valesius,Sozomen's Ecclesiastical History,from A.D. 324-440: and the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius.Theodoret and Evagrius. Ecclesias- tical Histories, from A.D. 332 to A.D. 427 and from A.D. 431 to A.D. 544.Wieseler's Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels. Translated by CANON VENABLES. New Edition, revised.22BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.ANTIQUARIAN LIBRARY.35 Vols. at 5s. each.Bede's Ecclesiastical History, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.Boethius's Consolation of Philoso- phy. In Anglo-Saxon, with the A. S. Metres, and an English Translation, by the Rev. S. Fox.Brand's Popular Antiquities of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland. By Sir HENRY ELLIS In 3 vols.Chronicles of the Crusaders. Richard of Devizes, Geoffrey de Vinsauf, Lord de Joinville.Dyer's British Popular Customs,Present and Past. An Account of the various Games and Customs associated with different days of the year. Bythe Rev. T. F. THISELTON DYER, M.A. With Index.Early Travels in Palestine. Willi- bald, Sawulf, Benjamin of Tudela, Man- deville, La Brocquière, and Maundrell;all unabridged. Edited by THOMAS WRIGHT.Ellis's Early English Metrical Ro- mances, Revised by J. O. HALLIWELL.Florence of Worcester's Chronicle,with the Two Continuations: comprising Annals of English History to the Reign of Edward I.Gesta Romanorum. Edited by WYN- NARD HOOPER, B.A.Giraldus Cambrensis' Historical Works: Topography of Ireland; History of the Conquest of Ireland; Itinerary through Wales; and Description of Wales.With Index. Edited by THOS. WRIGHT.Henry of Huntingdon's History of the English, from the Roman Invasion to Henry II.; with the Acts ofKing Stephen,&c.Ingulph's Chronicle ofthe Abbey of Croyland, with the Continuations by Peter of Blois and other Writers. By H. T. RILEY.Keightley's Fairy Mythology. Fron- tispiece by Cruikshank.Lepsius's Letters from Egypt, Ethio- pla, and the Peninsula of Sinal.Mallet's Northern Antiquities. By Bishop PEROY. With an Abstract of the Eyrbiggia Saga, by Sir WALTER SCOTT.Edited by J. A. BLACKWELL.Marco Polo's Travels. The Trans- lation of Marsden. Edited by THOMAS WRIGHT.Matthew Paris's Chronicle. In 5 vols.FIRST SECTION: Roger of Wendover's Flowers of English History, from the Descent of the Saxons to A.D. 1235.Translated by Dr. GILES. In 2 vols.SECOND SECTION: From 1285 to 1978.With Index to the entire Work. In 3 vols.Matthew of Westminster's Flowers of History, especially such as relate to the affairs of Britain; to A.D. 1307. Translated by C. D. YONGE. In 2 vols.Ordericus Vitalis' Ecclesiastical His- tory of England and Normandy. Trans- lated with Notes, by T. FORESTER, M.A. In 4 vols.Pauli's (Dr. R.) Life of Alfred the Great. Translated from the German, To which is appended Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Crosius, with a literal Transla- tion, and an Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Glossary.Roger De Hoveden's Annals of Eng- lish History; from A.D. 732 to A.D. 1201.Edited by H. T. RILEY. In 2 vols.Six Old English Chronicles, vix.:- Asser's Life of Alfred, and the Chronicles of Ethelwerd, Gildas, Nennius, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Richard of Ciren- cester.William of Malmesbury's Chronicle of the Kings of England. Translated by SHARPE.Yule-Tide Stories. A Collection of Scandinavian Tales and Traditions. Edited by B. THORPE.ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY.85 Vols. at 58. each, exceptingAllen's Battles of the British Navy.Revised and enlarged. Numerous fine Portraits. In 2 vols.Andersen's Danish Legends and Fairy Tales. With manyTales not in any other edition. Translated by CABOLINEPEACHEY. 120 Wood Engravings.those marked otherwise.Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. In Eng- lish Verse. By W. S. Ros . Twelve Ane Engravings. In 2 vols.Bechstein's Cage and Chamber Birds⚫ Including Sweet's Warblers. Enlarged edition. Numerous plates.

• • All other editions are abridged.

With the plates coloured. 78. 6d.23A CATALOGUE OF@Bonomi's Nineveh and its Palaces.New Edition, revised and considerably enlarged, both in matter and Plates.Upwards of 300 EngravingeButler's Hudibras. With Variorum Notes, a Biography, and a General Index.Edited by HENRY G. BOHN. Thirty beau tiful Illustrations.

or, further illustrated with 62 Outline Portraits. In 2 vols. 108.

Cattermole's Evenings at Haddon Hall. 24 exquisite Engravings on Steel,from designs by himself the Letterpress by the BARONESS DE CARABELLA.China, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical, with some Account of Ava and the Burmese, Siam, and Anam Nearly 100 Illustrations.Craik's (G. L.) Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties, illustrated by Anec- dotes and Memoirs. Revised Edition.With numerous Portraits.Cruikshank's Three Courses and aDessert. A Series of Tales, with 50 hes morous filustrations by Cruikshank.Punch and Judy. With 24 Illustrations. 5s. With Coloured Plates.7s. 6d.Dante. Translated by I.C.WRIGHT M.A. NewEdition, carefullyrevised. Portrast and 34 Illustrations on Steel, after Flaxman,Didron's History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages. From the French.Upwards of 15º outline Engravings.Vol. 2. Compiled from the author's literary remains and other sources,by MARGARET M. STOKES.Dyer (T. H. ) The History of Pompeii;with an Itinerary for Visitors, Edited by T. H. DYER, LL.D. With nearly 300 Wood Engravings, a large Map, and aPlan of the Forum . 7s. 6d,City of Rome: Its History and Monuments. New Edition, revised.Gil Blas, The Adventures of. 24 Engravings on Steel, after Smirke, and 10 Etchings by George Cruikshank. 68.Grimm's Gammer Grethel; or, Ger- man Fairy Tales and Popular Stories.Translated by EDGAR TAYLOR. Numerous Woodcuts by Cruikshank. 32. 6d.Holbein's Dance of Death, and Bible Cats. Upwards of 150 subjects, beauts fully engraved in fac-simile, with Intro duction and Descriptions by the late FRANCIS DOUGE and Dr. 1. F. DIBDIN.2 vols. in 1. 78. 6d.Howitt's (Mary) Pictorial Calendar of the Seasons. Embodying the whole of Alken's Calendar of Nature. Upwards of 100 Engravings.India, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical, from the Earliest Times. Up wards of 100 fine Engravings on Wood,and a Map.Jesse's Anecdotes of Dogs. New Edi- tion, with large additions. Numerous fine Woodcuts after Harvey, Bewick, and others.

or, with the addition of 34 highly-finished Steel Engravings. is. 6d.

King's Natural History of Precious Stones, and of the Precious Metals. With numerous Illustrations. Price 68.Natural History of Gems or Decorative Stones. Finely Illustrated .65.Kitto's Scripture Lands and Biblical Atlas. 24 Maps, beautifully engraved on Steel, with a Consulting Index.

with the maps coloured, 7s. 6d.

Krummacher's Parables. Translated from the German. Forty Illustrations by Clayton, engraved by Dalziel.Lindsay's ( Lord) Letters on Egypt,Edom, and the Holy Land. New Edition,enlarged. Thirty-six beautiful Engrav- ings, and 2 Maps.Lodge's Portraits of Illustrious Per- sonages of Great Britain, with Memoira .Two Hundred and Forty Portraits, en- graved on Steel. 8 vols.Longfellow's Poetical Works.Twenty-four page Engravings, by Birket Foster and others, and a Portrait.—; or, without illustrations, 3s.6d.Prose Works. 16 pane En- gravings by Birket Foster, &c.Loudon's (Mrs.) Entertaining Natur- allst. Revised by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. With nearly 500 Woodcuts.Marryat's Masterman Ready; or,The Wreck of the Pacific. 93 Woodcuts.3s. 6d.Poor Jack. With 16 Illus- trations, after Designs by O. Stanfield ,R.A. 35. 6d.Mission; or, Scenes in Af- rica. (Written for Young People.) Illes .trated by Gilbert and Dalsiel. 38. 6d.Pirate; and Three Cutters.New Edition, with a Memoir of the Author. With 8 Steel Engravings, from Drawings by C. Stanfield. R.A. 38 68.Privateers - Man One Hun- dred Years Ago. Eight Engravings on Steel, after Stothard. 3s. 6d.Settlers in Canada. New Edition. Ten fine Engravings by Gilbert and Dalsiel. 3s. 6d.24BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.Maxwell's Victories of Wellington and the British Armies. Steel Engravings.Michael Angelo and Raphael, their Lives and Works. By DUPPA and QUA- TREMÈRE DE QUINOY. With 13 Engravings on Steel.Killer's History of the Anglo-Sax- one. Written in & popular style, on the basis of Sharon Turner. Portrait of Alfred, Map of Saxon Britain, and 12 elaborate Engravings on Steck.Milton's Poetical Works. With aMemoir by JAMES MONTGOMERY, TODD'S Verbal Index to all the Poems, and Ex- planatory Notes. With 120 Engravings by Thompson and others, from Drawings by W. Harvey. 2 vols.Vol. 1. Paradise Lost, complete, with Memoir, Notes, and Index.Vol. 2. Paradise Regained, and other Poems, with Verbal Index to all the Poems.Madie's British Birds. Revised by W. C. L. MARTIN Fifty-two Figures and Plates of Eggs. In 2 vols.

or, with the plates coloured,

78. 8d. per vol.Naval and Military Heroes of Great Britain; or, Calendar of Victory. Being aRecord of British Valour and Conquest by Sea and Land, on every day in the year, from the time of William the Conqueror to the Battle of Inkermann .By Major JOHNS, R.M., and Lieutenant P. H. NICOLAS, R.M. Twenty-four Por- traits. 68.Nicolini's History of the Jesuits:their Origin, Progress, Doctrines, and De signs. Fine Portraits of Loyola, Lainès,Xavier, Borgia, Acquaviva, Père la Chasse,and Pope Ganganelli Petrarch's Sonnets, and other Poems.Translated into English Verse. By various hands. With a Life of the Poet, by THOMAS CAMPBELL With 16 Engravings.Pickering's History of the Races of Man, with an Analytical Synopsis of the Natural History of Man. By Dr. HALL.Illustrated by numerous Portraits.-; or,with theplates coloured. 73.6d.An excellent Edition of a work or!ginally published at 31. 33. by the American Government.Pictorial Handbook of Modern Geo- graphy, on a Popular Plan. 38. 6d. Illus trated by 150 Engravings and 51 Maps. 65.

or, with the maps coloured,

78. 66.Pope's Poetical Works. Edited by ROBERT CABEUTHERS. Numerous En- gravings. 2 vols.Pope's Homer's Iliad. With Intro- auceton and Notes by J. 8. WATSON, M.én. Illarated by the entire Series of Flas- Man's Designs, beautifully engraved by Moses (in the full 8vo. sixe).Homer's Odyssey, Hymns,&o., by other translators, including Chay- man, and Introduction and Notes by J. 9.WATSON, M.A. Flaxman's Designs beau tifully engraved by Moses.Life. Including many of his Lottery. By ROBERT CARRUTHERS. Now Edition.revised and enlarged. Illustrations.The preceding & vows. malce a complete and elegant edition of Pope's Poetical Works and Translations for 258.Fottery and Porcelain, and other Ob- jects of Verta (a Guide to the Knowledge of). To which is added an Engraved List of Marks and Monograms. By HENNY G. BOHN. Numerous Engravings.

or, coloured. 10s. 6d.

Prout's (Father , Reliques. Revised Edition. Twenty-one spirited Etchings by Maclise. 58.Recreations in Shooting. By 44 CRAVEN. " New Edition, revised and enlarged. 62 Engravings on Wood, after Harvey, and 9 Engravings on Steel, chiefly after A. Cooper, R.A.Redding's History and Descriptions of Wines, Ancient and Modern. TweYALY beautiful Woodcuts.Rennie's Insect Architecture. New Edition. Revised by the Rev. J. Q. WOOD, M.A. Robinson Crusoe. With Illustrations by STOTHARD and HARVEY. Twelve beaute- ful Engravings on Steel, and 74 on Wood.

or, without the Steel illustra- tions, 38. 6d.

Rome in the Nineteenth Century .New Edition. Revised by the Author.Illustrated by 34 Steel Engravings.2 vols.Sharpe's History of Egypt, from the Earliest Times till the Conquest by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By SAMUEL SHABPE.With 2 Maps and upwards of 400 Illus trative Woodcuts. Sixth and Cheaper Edition. 2 vols.Southey's Life of Nelson.Add tional Notes.Engravings.With Illustrated with 64Starlag's ( Miss ) Noble Deeds of Women; or, Examples of Female Courage,Fortitude, and Virtue Fourteen Iliustra- tions Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens, and other Monuments of Greeco.Illustrated in 71 Steel Plates, and ne- meus Woodcuts.25A CATALOGUE OFTales ofthe Genii; or, the Delightful Lessons of Horam. Numerous Woodcuts,and 8 Steel Engravings, after Stothard.Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. Translated into English Spenserian Verse, with a Life of the Author. By J. H. WIFFEN.Eight Engravings on Steel, and 24 on Wood, by Thurston.Walker's Manly Exercises. Con- taining Skating, Riding, Driving, Hunting,Shooting, Sailing, Rowing, Swimming, &c.New Edition, revised by " CRAVEN."Forty-four Steel Plates, and numerous Woodcuts.Walton's Complete Angler. Edited by EDWARD JESSE, Esq. Upwards of 203 Engravings.

or, with 26 additional page Illustrations on Steel, 78. 6d.

Walton'sLives of Donne, Hooker, &c.By A. H. BULLEN. Nine Steel Plates and numerous Woodcuts.Wellington, Life of. From the ma- terials of Maxwell. Eighteen Engravings.Westropp's Handbookof Archæology New Edition, revised. Numerous Illus- trations. 78. 6d.White's Natural History of Bel- borne. With Notes by Sir WILLIAM JAR- DINE and EDWARD JESSE, Esq. Illustrated by 40 Engravings.78. 6d.

or, with the plates coloured.

Young, The, Lady's Book. A Ma- nual of Elegant Recreations, Arts, Sciences,and Accomplishments. Twelve Hundred Woodcut Illustrations, and several En- gravings on Steel. 18. 6d.

or, cloth gilt, gilt edges, 9s.

CLASSICAL LIBRARY.95 Vols. at 5s, each, excepting those marked otherwise.Aristotle's Organon; or, Logical uses. With Notes, &c. ByO. F.OWEN,M.A.2 vols., 3s. 6d. each.Eschylus translated into English Verse by A. SWANWICK.Literally Translated into English Prose by an Oxonian. 38. 6d.Ammianus Marcellinus. History of Rome from Constantius to Valens. Trans- lated byC. D. YONGE, B.A. Dble. vol, 78. 6d.Antoninus. The Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Translated by GEO. LONG, M.A. 3s. 6d.Apuleius, the Golden Ass; Death of Socrates; Florida; and Discourse on Magic.To which is added a Metrical Version of Cupid and Psyche; and Mrs. Tighe's Psyche. Frontispiece.Aristophanes Comedies. Literally Translated, with Notes and Extracts from Frere's and other Metrical Versions, by W. J. HICKIN. 2 vols.Vol. 1. Acharnians, Knights, Clouds,Wasps, Peace, and Birds.Vol. 2. Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusa,Frogs, Ecclesiazuse, and Plutus.Aristotle's Ethics. Literally Trans- lated by Archdeacon BROWNE, late Classical Professor of King's College.Politics and Economics.Translated by E. WALFORD, M.A.Metaphysics. Literally Trans- lated, with Notes, Analysis, Examination Questions, and Index, by the Rev. JOHN H. M'MAHON, M.A., and Gold Medallist in Metaphysica. T.C.D.Aristotle's History of Animals. InTer Books. Translated, with Notes and Index,by RICHARD CRESSWELL, M.A.Rhetoric and Poetics. Lite- rally Translated, with Examination Ques- tions and Notes, by an Oxonian.Athenæus. The Deipnosophists; or,the Banquet of the Learned. Translated by C. D. YONGE. B.A. 3 vola Atlas of Classical Geography.Twenty-two large coloured Maps accora- ing to the latest authorities. With acomplete Index (accentuated), giving the latitude and longitude of every place named in the Maps. Imp. 8vo. 7s 16d.Cæsar. Complete, with the Alexan- drian, African, and Spanish Wars. Lite- rally Translated, with Notes.Catullus, Tibullus, and the Vigil of Venus. A Literal Prose Translation. To which are added Metrical Versions by LAMB, GRAINGER, and others. Frontis- piece.Cicero's Orations. Literally Trans- lated by C. D. YONGE, B.A. In 4 vols.Vol. 1. Contains the Orations against Verres, &c. Portrait.Vol. 2. Catiline, Archias, Agrarian Law, Rabirius, Murena, Sylla, &c.Vol. 3. Orations for his House, Plancius,Sextius, Cœlius, Milo, Ligarius, &c.Vol. 4. Miscellaneous Orations, and Rhetorical Works; with General In- dex to the four volumes.on the Nature of the Gods,Divination, Fate, Laws, a Republic, &c.Translated by ά. D. YONGE, B.A., and F. BARHAM.26BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.Cicero's Academics, De Finibus, and Tusculan Questions. By C. D. YONGE,B.A. With Sketch of the Greek Philo- sopher.Offices, Old Age, Friendship,Scipio's Dream, Paradoxes, &c. Literally Translated, by R. EDMONDS. 38. 6d.on Oratory and Orators. By J. S. WATSON, M.A.Demosthenes' Orations. Translated,with Notes, by Q. RANN KENNEDY. In 5volumes.Vol. 1. The Olynthiac, Philippic, and other Public Orations. 38. 6d.Vol. 2. On the Crown and on the Em- bassy.Vol. 3. Against Leptines, Midias, An- drotrion, and Aristocrates.Vol. 4. Private and other Orations.Vol 5. Miscellaneous Orations.Dictionary of Latin Quotations. Ia- cluding Proverbs, Maxims, Mottoes, Law Terms, and Phrases; and a Collection of above 500 Greek Quotations. With all the quantities marked, & English Translations.with Index Verborum.Index Verborum only. 18.68.Diogenes Laertius. Lives and Opin- ions of the Ancient Philosophers. Trans- lated, with Notes, by C. D. YONGE.Epictetus. Discourses, with Enche- ridion and Fragments. Translated with Notes, byGEOBGE LONG, M.A. Euripides. Literally Translated, 2vols.Vol. 1. Hecuba, Orestes, Medea, Hippo.lytus, Alcestia, Baccha, Heraclidæ,Iphigenia in Aulide, and Iphigenia in Tauris.Vol. 2. Hercules Furens, Troades, Ion,Andromache, Suppliants, Helen,Electra, Cyclops, Rhesus.Greek Anthology. Literally Trans- lated. With Metrical Versions by various Authors.Romances of Heliodorus,Longus, and Achilles Tatins.Herodotus. A New and Literal Translation, by HENRY CARY, M.A., of Worcester College, Oxford.Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis.Literally Translated, with Notes, by J. BANKS, M.A.Homer's Iliad. Literally Translated Odyssey, Hymns, &c. Lite- rally Translated.Horace. Literally Translated, by SMART. Carefully revised by an OXONIAN.38. 6d.Justin, Cornelius Nepos, and Eutro- plus. Literally Translated, with Notes and Index, by J. 8. WATSON. M.A.Juvenal, Persius, Sulpicia, and “u- cilius. By L EVANS, M.A. With the Metrical Version by Gifford. Frontispiece Livy. A new and Literal Translation.By Dr. SPILLAN and others. In 4 vols.Vol. 1. Contains Books 1-8.Vol. 2. Books 9-26.Vol. 3. Books 27-36.Vol. 4 Books 37 to the end; and Index,Lucan's Pharsalia. Translated, with Notes by H. T. RILEY.Lucretius. Literally Translated, with Notes, by the Rev. J. S. WATSON, M.A. And the Metrical Version by J. M. GOOD.Martial's Epigrams, complete. Lite- rally Translated. Each accompanied by one or more Verse Translations selected from the Works of English Poets, and other sources. With a copious Index.Double volume (660 pages). 78. 6d.Ovid's Works, complete.Translated. 3 vola.LiterallyVol. 1. Fasti, Tristia, Epistles, &c.Vol. 2. Metamorphoses.Vol 3 Heroides. Art of Love, &a.Phalaris, Bentley's Dissertation on.5s.Pindar. Literally Translated, by Daw- SON W. TURNER, and the Metrical Version by ABRAHAM Moore.Plato's Works. Translated by the Rev. H. CARY and others. In 6 vols.Vol. 1. The Apology of Socrates, Crito,Phædo, Gorgias, Protagoras, Phædrus,The tetus, Euthyphron, Lysis.Vol. 2. TheRepublic, Timæus, & Critias.Vol. 3. Meno, Euthydemus, The So- phist, Statesman, Cratylus, Parme- nides, and the Banquet.Vol. 4. Philebus, Charmides, Laches,The Two Alcibiades, and Ten other Dialogues.Vol. 5. The Laws.Vol. 6. The Doubtful Works. With General Index.-Dialogues, Analysis and Index to. With References to the Translation in Bohn's Classical Library. By Dr. DAY.Plautus's Comedies. Literally Trans- lated, with Notes, by H. T. RILEY, B.A. In 2 vols.Pliny's Natural History. Translated,with Copious Notes, by the late JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.B.S., and H. T. RILEY,B.A In 6 vols Pliny the Younger, The Letters of.MELMOTH'S Translation revised. By the Rev. F. C T. BOSANQUET, M.A. Plutarch's Morals. By C. W. KING,M.A. Propertius. Literally Translated by the Rev. P. J. F. GANTILLON, ¡ M.A.,and accompanied by Poetical Versions ,trom various sources. 38 6d.27A CATALOGUE OFQuintilian's Institutes of Oratory.Literally Translated with Notes, &c., by J. S. WATSON. M.A In 2 vola Sallust, Florus, and Velleius Pater- culus. With Coptous Notes, Biographical Notices and Index by J. S WATRONSeneca de Beneficiis . Newly trans- lated by A. STEWART, M.A.Sopnocies.revised.The Oxford TranslationStrabo's Geography.Translated,with Coplous Notes, by W. FALCONER,M.A., and H. C. HAMILTON, Esq. With Index, giving the Ancient and Modern Names. In 3 vols.Suetonius' Lives of the Twelve Cæsars, and other Works. Thomson's Translation, revised, with Notes. by T. FORESTER.Tacitus. Literally Translated, with Notes. In 2 vols.Vol. 1. The Annals.Vol. 2. The History, Germania, Agri- cola, &c. With Index.Terence and Phædrus. By H. TRILEY, B.A.Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, and Tyrtens. By J. BANKS, M.A. With the Metrical Versions of Chapman.Thucydides. Literally Translated by Rev. H. DALE. In 2 vols. 82. 6d. each.Virgil. LiterallyTranslated by DAVID.BON. NewEdition, carefully revised 3s. 6d.Xenophon's Works. In 3 Vois.Vol. 1. The Anabasis and Memorabilia.Translated, with Notes, by J. S. WAT BON, M.A. And a Geographical Com- mentary, byW. F. AINSWORTH, F.S.A.,F.R.G.S., &c.Vol. 2. Cyropædia and Hellenice. By J. S. WATSON, M.A., and the Rev. H. DALE.Vol. 3. The Minor Works. By J. 8.WATSON, M.A.SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY.57 Vols. at 5s. each, excepting those marked otherwise.Agassiz and Gould's Comparative Physiology. Enlarged by Dr. WRIGHT,Upwards of 400 Engravings.Bolley's Manual of Technical Analy- vis. A Guide for the Testing of Natural and Artificial Substances. By B. H. PAUL.100 Wood Engravings.BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. -Bell onthe Hand. Its Mecha- nism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design. Seventh Edition Revised.Kirby onthe History, Habits,and Instincts of Animals. Edited, with Notes, by T. RYMER JONES, Numerous Engravings, manyofwhich are additional.In 2 vols.Kidd on the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. 3s. 6d.Whewell's Astronomy and General Physics, considered with refer- ence to Natural Theology. 3s. 6d.Chalmers on the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and In- tellectual Constitution of Man.Prout's Treatise on Chemis- try, Meteorology, and Digestion. Edited!by Dr. J. W. GRIFFITH.BRIDGEWATER TREATISES cont.Buckland's Geology and Mineralogy. 2 vols. 158.Roget's Animal and Vege- table Physiology. Illustrated. In 2 vols.68. each.Browne (A. J. Jukes). Student's Handbook of Physical Geology.erous Imitations. 68.NumCarpenter's ( Dr. W. B. ) Zoology. ASystematic View of the Structure, Habits,Instincts, and Uses, of the principal Fami lies of the Animal Kingdom, and of the chief forms of Fossil Remains. Revised by W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. illustrated with many hundred Wood Engravings. In 2 vols. 6s. each.Mechanical Philosophy, As- tronomy, and Horology. A Popular Ex- position. 183 Illustrations.Vegetable Physiology and Systematic Botany. A complete Intro- duction to the Knowledge of Plants.Revised, under arrangement with the Author, by E. LANKESTER, M.D., &c.Severalhundred Illustrations on Wood. 88.Animal Physiology. In part re-written by the Author. Upwards of 800 capital Illustrations. 6c.28BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.Chevreul on Colour. Containing the Principles of Harmony and Contract of Colours, and their application to the Arts.Translated from the French by CHARLES MARTEL. Only complete Edition. Several Plates. Or, with an additional series of 18 Plates in Colours. 78. 6d.Ennemoser's History of Magic.Translated by WILLIAM HOWITT. With an Appendix of the most remarkable and best authenticated Stories of Apparitions,Dreams, Table-Turning, and Spirit- Rap- ping, &c. In 2 vols.Hogg's (Jabez) Elements of Experi- mental and Natural Philosophy. Con- taining Mechanics, Pneumatics, Hydro- statics, Hydraulics, Acoustics, Optics,Caloric, Electricity, Voltaism, and Mag.netism. New Edition, enlarged.wards of 400 Woodcuts.UpHind's Introduction to Astronomy.With a Vocabulary, containing an Expla nation of all the Terms in present use.New Edition, enlarged. Numerous En- gravings. 38. 6d.Humboldt's Cosmos; or, Sketch of aPhysical Description of the Universe.Translated by E. C. OTT and W. S. DALLAS, F.L.Š. Fine Portrait. In five vols. 38. 6d. each; excepting Vol. V., 58.

• • In this edition the notes are placed beneath the text, Humboldt's analytical Summaries and the passages hitherto sup- pressed are included, and new and com- prehensive Indices are added.

vols.Travels in America. In 3Views of Nature; or, Con- templations of the Sublime Phenomena of Creation. Translated by E. C. OTTE and E. G. BOHN. With a complete Index.Hunt's ( Robert) Poetry of Science;or, Studies of the Physical Phenomena of Nature. By Professor HUNT. New Edl- tion, enlarged.Joyce's Scientific Dialogues. By Dr. GRIFFITH. Numerous Woodcuts.Introduction to the Arts and Sciences With Examination Questions.Ss. 6d.Knight's (Chas. ) Knowledge is Power.A Popular Manual of Political Economy.Lectures on Painting. Bythe Royal Academicians. With Introductory Essay.and Notes by R. WORNUM, Esq,Fortraits.Lilly's Introduction to Astrology.With numerous Emendations, by ZADKIEL.Mantell's (Dr.) Geological Excur- sions through the Isle of Wight and Dor- setshire. New Edition, by T. RUPERT JONES, Esq. Numerous beautifully exe suted Woodcuts, and a Geological Map.or,Medals of Creation;First Lessons in Geology and the Study of Organic Remains; including Geological Excursions. New Edition, revised. Co- loured Plates, and several hundred beats- tiful Woodcuts. In 2 vols., 7s. 6d. each.Petrifactions and their Teachings. An Illustrated Handbook to the Organic Remains in the British Mu- seum. Numerous Engravings. 68.Wonders of Geology; or, aFamiliar Exposition of Geological Phe- nomena. New Edition, augmented by T. RUPERTJONES, F.G.S. Coloured Geological Map of England, Plates, and nearly 200 beautiful Woodcuts. In 2vols. , 78. 6d. each.Morphy's Games of Chess. Being the Matches and best Games played by the American Champion with Explana- tory and Analytical Notes, by J. LÖWER- THAL. Portrait and Memoir.It contains by far the largest collection of games played by Mr. Morphy extant in any form, and has received his endorse- ment and co-operation.Schouw'sEarth, Plants, and Man; and Kobell's Sketches from the Mineral King- dom. Translated by A. HENFREY, F.R.S. ColouredMap ofthe Geography of Plants.Smith's (Pye) Geology and Scrip- ture; or, The Relation between the Holy Scriptures and Geological Science.Stanley's Classified Synopsis of the Principal Painters of the Dutch and Fle- mish Schools.Staunton's Chess-player's Handbook.Numerous Diagrams.Con- Chess Praxis. A Supplement to the Chess-player's Handbook.taining all the most important modern improvements in the Openings, illustrated by actual Games; a revised Code of Chess Laws; and a Selection of Mr. Morphy's Games in England and France. 6s.Chess-player's Companion.Comprising a new Treatise on Odds, Col. lection of Match Games, and a Selection of Original Problems,29A CATALOGUE OFStaunton's Chess Tournament of 1815. Numerous Illustrations.Stockhardt's Principles ofChemistry,exemplified in a series of simple experi- ments. Based upon the German work ofProfessor STOCKHARDT, and Edited by C. W. HEATON, Professor of Chemistry at Charing Cross Hospital Upwards of 270 Mustrations.Ure's (Dr. A. ) Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain, systematically investi- gated; with an introductory view of its comparative state in Foreign Countries.New Edition, revised by P. L. SIMMONDS.One hundred and fiftyIllustrations. In 2 vols.Philosophy of Manufactures;*`or, An Exposition of the Factory System of Great Britain. Continued by P. LSIMMONDS. 78. 6d.ECONOMICS AND FINANCE.Gilbart's History, Principles, and Practice of Banking. New Edition.Revised to the Present Date by A. S. MICHIE, of the Royal Bank of Scotland, with Portrait of Gilbart, 2 vols. 108.!REFERENCE LIBRARY.28 Vols. at various prices.Bohn's Dictionary of Poetical Quota- tions. 68.Buchanan's Dictionary of Science and Technical Terms. 68.Blair's Chronological Tables, Re- vised and Enlarged. Comprehending the Chronology and History of the World,from the earliest times. By J.WILLOUGHBY ROSSE. Double Volume. 108.Clark's (Hugh) Introduction to Heraldry. With nearly 1000 Illustrations.18th Edition. Revised and enlarged by J. R. PLANCHE, Rouge Croix. 5s. Or,with all the Illustrations coloured, 158.Chronicles of the Tombs. A Collec- tion of Remarkable Epitaphs. By T. J. PETTIGREW, F.R.S., F.S.A. 58.Handbook of Domestic Medicine.Popularly arranged. By Dr. HENRY DAVIES. 700 pages. With complete Index. 58.Games. By various Amateurs and Professors. Edited by H. G. BOHN.Illustrated by numerous Diagrams. 5s.Proverbs. Comprising all Ray's English Proverbs, with additions;his foreign Proverbs; and an Alphabetical Index. 58.Henfrey's Guide to English Coins,from the Conquest to the Present Time.Revised Edition by C. F. KEARY, M.A.,F.S.A. 68. 1Humphrey's Coin Collector's Manual A popular Introduction to the Study Coins. Highlyfinished Engravings. 12 vols. 18.Index of Dates. Comprehendingthe principal Facts in the Chronology and History of the World, from the earliest time, alphabetically arranged. ByJ. W. ROSSE. Double volume, 10s.Lowndes' Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature. New Edition, en- larged, by H. G. BOHN. Parts I. to X. (Ato Z.) 3s. 6d. each. Part XI. (the Ap- pendix Volume) . 5s. Or the 11 parts in 4 vols. , half morocco, 21. 2s.Polyglot of Foreign Proverbs. With English Translations, and a General In- dex, bringing the whole into parallels.By H. G. BOHN. 5s.Political Cyclopædia.3s. 6d. each.In 4 vols.Smith's (Archdeacon) Complete Col- lection of Synonyms and Antonyms. 5s.The Epigrammatists. Selections from the Epigrammatic Literature of all Times. With Notes, and Introduction.By Rev. H. P. DODD, M.A. Enlarge Edition . 6s.Wheeler's (W. A., M.A.) Dictionary of Noted Names of Fictitious Persons and Places. 5s.Wright's (T.) Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English. In 2 vols. 5s.each .30BOHN'S VARIOUS LIBRARIES.NOVELISTS' LIBRARY.10 Vols. at 3s. 6d. , excepting those marked otherwise.Burney's Evelina. With an Intro- duction and Notes by A. R. ELLIS.Burney's Cecilia. Edited by A. R. ELLIS. 2 vols.Manzoni (Alessandro) The Betrothed (I promessi Sposi) . The only complete English Translation. With numerous Woodcuts. 58.Uncle Tom's Cabin. With Introduc- tory Remarks by the Rev. J. SHERMAN.Printed in a large clear type. Illustra- tions. 3s. 6d.Tom Jones; the History of a Found- ling. By HENRY FIFLDING. Roscoe's Edition, revised. With Illustrations by George Cruikshank. In 2 vols. 7s.Joseph Andrews. By HENRY FIELD- ING. Roscoe's Edition, revised. With Illustrations by George Cruikshank. In 1 vol. 3s. 6d.Amelia. By HENRY FIELDING.Roscoe's Edition, revised. With Cruik- shank's Illustrations. 5s.Grosse's Marco Visconti. Translated from the Italian by A. F. D.ARTISTS' LIBRARY.7 Vols. at various prices.Leonardo da Vinci's Treatise on Painting. Numerous Plates. New Edition,revised, 58.Planché's History of British Cos- me. Third Edition. With numerous Voodcuts. 5s.Fairholt's Costume in England. AHistory of Dress to the end of the Eigh- teenth Century. Third Edition. En- larged and thoroughly revised by the Hon. H. A. DILLON, F.S.A. With above 700 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 10s. Vol. I. History; Vol. II. Glossary.Demmin's (A.) Illustrated History of Armsand Armourfrom theEarliest Period.With nearly 2,000 Illustrations. 78. 64.Flaxman's Lectures on Sculpture.Numerous Illustrations. 6s.The Anatomy and Philosophy ofExpression as connected with the Fine Arts. By SIR CHARLES BELL, K.H.Seventh Edition, revised. With numerous Woodcuts and 20 Plates. 58.Var